The Role of Gender in Betrayal Trauma and Post-Traumatic Stress among Youth in Nairobi County’s Informal Settlements

Abstract

This study investigated how gender influences the experience and psychological outcomes of betrayal trauma among young people aged 18-35 residing in informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya. Betrayal trauma, defined as harm perpetrated by trusted individuals such as caregivers, partners, or authority figures, remains an under-researched form of interpersonal violence in low-income urban contexts. While global evidence indicates that women are more likely to experience high-betrayal (HB) trauma within intimate or dependent relationships, men are more often exposed to medium-betrayal (MB) trauma involving institutional abuse, physical assault, or social exploitation. This study sought to empirically test these gendered dynamics within Nairobi’s informal settlements. Guided by Betrayal Trauma Theory (Freyd, 1996) and using a pragmatic mixed-methods design, the study combined quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews to explore the prevalence, manifestation, and coping patterns associated with betrayal trauma. Data were collected from 204 participants in Kibera, Mathare, and Mukuru settlements using the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey (BBTS), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL), and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). Results revealed a high prevalence of betrayal trauma, with 78% of respondents reporting at least one form and 64% reporting multiple experiences. Gender comparisons showed that both males and females experienced similar exposure levels but differed in trauma processing. Females exhibited higher emotional reactivity, cognitive rumination, and intrusive symptoms, whereas males showed stronger avoidance and physiological arousal patterns. Although overall PTSD severity was statistically comparable, qualitative findings highlighted distinct gendered coping orientations shaped by cultural and social expectations. The study contributes a contextualized, gender-sensitive perspective to betrayal trauma research in sub-Saharan Africa. It underscores the need for trauma-informed, culturally grounded, and gender-responsive mental health interventions to support young people’s resilience and recovery within Nairobi’s informal settlements.