Browsing by Author "Kinuthia, Geoffrey K."
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Item Assessment of Heavy Metals Pollution in Urban Soils and the Implications to Consumers Health(Journal of Natural Sciences Research, 2015-01) Ngure, Veronica; Sitati, Noah; Shisia, Silvanus; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.Elevated levels of metals due to anthropogenic activities are a cause of environmental concern because of their effects on human health. Eldoret Municipality, in Kenya, is one of the fastest growing municipalities with both industrial and agricultural developments. The study aimed at determining the concentration of five elements namely zinc (Zn), lead (Pd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd) in five sample sites within the municipality and established the possible health risks in the residents. Measured concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cr, Cu and Cd in surface horizon soils were used to estimate the geochemical load indices and their spatial distribution. Four soil samples were collected monthly from each sample site on the same farms totaling 200 soil samples. The samples were dried, ground and sieved for metal digestion using varied acids in the laboratory and analysis was done against metal standards using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). Only Cd concentration (0.0286mg/kg) in all sites was above the recommended unpolluted soils. Epidemiological data were obtained from the residents and hospitals to establish associated health risks. Determination of metals’ combined effects using multivariate Principal Component Analysis showed that varying concentrations of Zn and Pb tended to increase incidences of cancer, hypertension and stroke. Metals Zn, Pb and Cu concentrations correlated with development of cardiovascular diseases. Awareness rising to residents of Eldoret Municipality on high Cd concentration in the soil and use of alternative forms of fertilizers and related chemicals with low Cd content is recommended.Item Characterization and Comparison of Leishmania-Like Isolates from Rodents, Lizards and Sand Flies Caught at Masinga Location in Machakos District, Kenya(African Journal of Health Sciences, 2011-06) Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Lugalia, Reuben; Mwanyumba, Panuel J.; Ngeiywa, Moses M.; Anjili, Christopher O.; Tonui, Willy K.A laboratory based study was designed to characterize 43 cryo-preserved Leishmania-like flagellates. These Leishmania-like flagellates were originally obtained from non-human hosts that included spiny mice (Acomys subspinosus), plated lizards (Gerrosaurus major) and sand flies of the Genus Sergentomyia caught at Masinga location, Machakos District in Kenya. Morphological features and isoenzyme banding patterns of the flagellates were studied. The isoenzyme markers which were used for isoenzyme electrophoresis included Malate dehydrogenase (MDH), Phosphoglucomutase (PGM), Glucose phosphate isomerase (GPI), Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), Malic enzyme (ME), 6 phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) and Mannose phosphate isomerase (MPI). The isoenzyme banding patterns of the flagellates’ lysates were compared with those of six WHO Leishmania reference strains and those of seven well characterized reference strains of Trypanosoma, Crithidia, Herpetomonas and Leptomonas species. The results showed that the morphological changes of the Leishmania-like flagellates in the growth medium were indistinguishable from those of Leishmania WHO reference strains used. The isoenzyme profiles of the flagellates were all distinguishable from the reference strains used except for isolate NLB-1236 from G. major which had an enzyme profile identical to that of L. tropica (NLB-305) in 6 enzymes (MDH, GPI, MPI, ME, PGM, and G6PD). The banding pattern of isolate NLB-1261 from A. subspinosus was indistinguishable from that of L. major (NLB-326) in 3 enzymes only (MDH, GPI and ME) while isolate NLB-1231 from A. subspinosus had an enzyme profile identical to those of L. tropica (NLB-305) and L. arabica (NLB-664) in six enzymes (MDH, GPI, ME, PGM, MPI, and 6PGD). More than 80% of the Leishmania-like flagellates had enzyme profiles indistinguishable from each other, in all the isoenzyme markers. The morphological traits of the flagellates suggested that they were Leishmania or strains closely related to Leishmania. Isoenzyme analysis suggested that Sergentomyia sand flies most likely feed on both lizards (reptiles) and rodents (mammals). There is need to carry further investigations on NLB-1236 (from plated lizards), NLB-1261 (from wild spiny mice) and NLB-1231 (from wild spiny mice).Item Concentration Levels of Potentially Harmful Elements from Gold Mining in Lake Victoria Region, Kenya: Environmental and Health Implications(Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2014) Ngure, Veronica; Davies, Theophilus; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Sitati, Noah; Shisia, Silvanus; Okoth, Elijah OyooSecond only to the agricultural industry, mining is often considered to be the largest source of pollution in most mineral-rich countries. Minewastes and tailings commonly generate large concentrations of effluents containing high levels of potentially harmful elements (PHEs) which migrate into various compartments of the ecosystem with obvious undesirable health consequences. In this study, the concentrations of As Cd, Hg and Pb were determined on samples of soil, stream water and fish (Rastrineobola argentea) collected from the Migori Gold Belt (MGB) in Kenya. Maximum total concentrations of Cd, Pb, As and Hg recorded in some samples in the study area were found to be far above the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) maximum allowable concentrations (MAC), respectively, including some from the control site, 150 km away from the MGB. The calculated geometric means showed that the PHE concentrations were significantly above MAC levels (p b 0.05) in the three sample types. The PHE concentrations were as follows: in water, Cd: 1.5–10.5 μg l−1, Pb: 0.4–13.1 μg l−1, As: 0.06–23.0 μg l−1, and Hg: 0.36–52.1 μg l−1; in soil, Cd: 4.5–570 mg kg−1, Pb: 5.9–619 mg kg−1, As: 0.08–86.0 mg kg−1, and Hg: 0.51–1830 mg kg−1; and in fish; Cd, 1.9–10.1 mg kg−1, Pb: 2.0–13.1 mg kg−1, As: 0.02–1.92 mg kg−1, and Hg: 0.26–355 mg kg−1. Concentrations of PHEs were much higher in the area affected by gold mining area than at point S4 which was sampled for comparison and was 70 km away from the gold mining area. We conclude that gold mining and other human activities in the MGB have led to the release of toxic levels of Cd, Pb, As and Hg, which may lead to serious environmental health consequences in humans. We recommend that the public health sector addresses in a timely fashion, these sources of contamination (gold mining and associated human activities), in order to obviate impending health problems.Item Effects of Metarhizium anisopliae on sand fly populations in their natural habitats in Marigat sub- County, Baringo County, Kenya(Centre for Biotechnology Research & Development,, 2010) Ngure, Peter Kamau; Ngumbi, Philip; Kasili, Sichangi; Anjili, Christopher O.; Karanja, Robert M.; Kaburiae, Josyline C.; Mwangi, Milkah; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Kiarie, Martha; Nzau, Anastasia; Kepha, Stella; Maniania, Nguya K.; Irungu, LucyLeishmaniasis is one of the neglected tropical diseases that pose a threat to people in the endemic regions. In Africa, transmission is through the bite of an infected female phlebotomine sand fly. Disease control with chemotherapy is logistically difficult, toxic and expensive. Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) hold great potential as alternative vector control for sandflies as demonstrated by their efficacy in recent laboratory experiments. The impressive results have merited testing of the effect of EPF on sand flies in their natural habitats. The goal of this study was to test the effect of EPF on sand fly populations on a small scale in a leishmania-endemic area in Kenya. Entomopathogenic fungi isolates were cultured on Sabourand dextrose agar (SDA) in Petri dishes and incubated at 22-280C. Conidia were produced on long white rice substrate and harvested by sifting the substrate through a 295 μm mesh size sieve and stored at 4- 2 6 0C before being used in the experiments. Metarhizium anisopliae isolates were selected for use in the field after showing 76.8 and 100% mortality in laboratory bred target insects. 2.0 x 1014 of dry conidia of the fungus were introduced into ten termite mounds through the shafts using a modified foot pump in Rabai, Marigat area of Baringo County, Kenya. The site harbours both Phlebotomus martini and P. duboscqi sandfly vectors. Sand fly densities, mycoses and survival after capture from the mounds were observed from week one post-treatment to week thirteen. Results indicate that the fungi in termite mounds caused three to ten-fold mortalities in the population of sand flies nine weeks after application. Longevity of sand flies collected from treated termite mounds was reduced to less than nine days after collection, whereas 90% of those from control mounds lived well over the nine days. Sand flies collected from the treated termite mounds during week nine had 100% mortality compared to 10.7% of those from the control mounds. Metarhizium anisopliae infection was observed in 42% of the sand fly cadavers collected from the treated termite mounds and 0% in the control group. The high susceptibility of sand flies to M. anisopliae suggests that fungi can be developed as potential vector control alternatives to synthetic chemical insecticides or preferentially be applied in integrated control strategies in order to gain maximum impact on adult sand fly populations. Further studies to determine the best methods for delivery and application in the diverse ecological settings of various leishmaniasis vectors are recommended.Item Efficacy Of Combination Therapy Using Extracts Of Aloe Secundiflora Eng L. And Callistemon Citrinus William C. In Leishmania Major Infected Balb/C Mice(East African Medical Journal, 2016-03) Ndeti, Cosmas; Christine, Kituyi; Ndirangu, M.; Chimbevo, Lenny; Anjili, Christopher; Barasa, Mustafa; Okendo, Javan Ochieng; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Maina, Esther; Nyambati, V. C. S.Background: Leishmania major causes cutaneous leishmaniasis which leads to painful skin sores in humans. In the current study, efficacy of combination therapy of A. secundiflora and C. citrinus against L. major infected mice treated intra-peritoneally and orally was studied. Pentostam administered intra-peritoneally and phosphate buffered saline intra-peritoneally and orally were used as a controls. Objective: To determine the efficacy of combined therapy of C. citrinus and A. secundiflora extracts in Leishmania major infected BALB/c mice. Design: Experimental-Laboratory based study Setting: Kenya Medical Research Institute (Leishmania Department) Subjects: Eight weeks Male BALB/c Mice Results: The minimum inhibitory concentration (MICs) of aqueous extracts of A. secundiflora (A), and C. citrinus (B) were 2 mg/ml and 5 mg/ml respectively while the IC50 for the same extracts were 467.09μg/ml and 457.88μg/ml respectively. The combination of these extracts at ratio (1:1) supported minimal growth of L. major promastigotes and had IC50 of 58.45μg/ml as compared to MICs of 12.50μg/ml for Pentostam. The combination therapy had Infection rate (IR) of 19% and MI of 52.81% compared to Pentostam (IR=21% and MI=11.64%). The combination therapy reduced the footpad lesion size significantly (P < 0.05) just like the Pentostam control drug and no significant nitric oxide was stimulated. The oral and intra-peritoneal combination treatment reduced spleen amastigotes in mice by 73.46% and 78.12% corresponding to total LDUs of 10.87±0.64 and 8.96±0.82 respectively compared to Pentostam at 94.58% and LDU of 2.22±0.13. The difference between efficacy of Pentostam and that of combined extracts was almost significant (t= 2.653, P= 0.057). Conclusion: The combination therapy was active against L. major parasite, reduced lesion size significantly and did not prevent visceralisation but reduced spleen parasite load significantly.Item Efficacy of crude methanolic extracts of Allium sativum L. and Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod. against Leishmania major(Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants, 2014-03) Gikonyo, Nicholas K.; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Kabiru, Ephantus Wanjohi ; Anjili, Christopher O.; Kigondu, Elizabeth M.; Ngure, Veronica; Ingonga, Johnstone M.Leishmania major is a protozoan parasite responsible for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in humans. CL is transmitted via a bite by infected female phlebotomine sand fly. Research on herbal therapy for leishmaniases is increasing globally because conventional drugs are costly, toxic and require a prolonged administration. In vitro and in vivo antileishmanial activities of dried Allium sativum (garlic) and Moringa stenopetala methanolic extracts against L. major were studied. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of methanolic extracts of A. sativum (A) and M. stenopetala(M) against L. major were 3 and 5 mg/ml and IC50 of 863.12 and 1752.92 μg/ml respectively. The blend AM (1:1) hadIC50 of 372.1μg/ml and promastigotes’ viability of 71.03% compared to IC50 of 0.26 and 0.82μg/ml and promastigotes’viability of 18.41% and 12.22% for Pentostam and Liposomal amphotericin B respectively. Multiplication indices (MIs) of L. major amastigotes ranged from 43.67% to 45.93% after treatment with extracts A or M or blend AM at 125μg/ml and were significantly different (P < 0.05) from Liposomal amphotericin B at 12.5μg/ml. Oral extract A reduced significantly (P > 0.05) L. major caused foot pad lesions in BALB/c mice while oral extract M did not. Blend AM (ip) reduced the lesion sizes and its efficacy was close to Pentostam and Liposomal amphotericin B. Oral extract A had a high parasite reduction rate of 60.70% and average LDU of 0.22±0.15 compared to Pentostam at 66.40% and LDU of 0.18±0.08. In conclusion, methanolic extract of A. sativum showed anti-leishmanial activity both in vitro and in vivo and it decreased L. major caused foot pad lesions in BALB/c mice. Methanolic extracts of M. stenopetala (ip) reduced the amastigotes burden in spleens of BALB/c mice. A blend of garlic and moringa methanolic extracts (AM at 1:1) were active against L. major. The active ingredients in crude methanolic extracts of garlic and moringa plants should be established and tested against L. major when blended.Item Health Implications of Heavy Metals in Soil, Scalp Hair and Selected Food Crops within Eldoret Municipality, Kenya(IOSR Journal Of Environmental Science, Toxicology And Food Technology, 2013-12) Ngure, Veronica; Sitati, Noah; Shisia, Silvanus; Simiyu, Gelas; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Kelonye, FestusHeavy metals were analyzed in soils, food crops and male scalp hair samples collected from two age group subjects; adults (18 - 45 years) and old age (46 - 55 years) males from polluted and relatively less polluted areas in Eldoret Municipality environs, Kenya. The samples used were collected from same sites as the individuals who had stayed in the sampled regions for more than five years. The samples were digested using acids and analyzed using Atomic Absorbtion Spectrometry (AAS). The results revealed that the consumption of food crops grown on contaminated soils have significantly increased the concentrations of selected metals in the human hair. Pd and Cd concentrations in soils and food crops showed elevated levels above the WHO recommended limits. Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn concentrations were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in male scalp hair samples collected from polluted area as compared to control area. In conclusion, consumers in the study area are exposed to high health risks associated with bioaccumulation of heavy metals through ingestion of heavy metals resulting from contamination of food crops grown in the study area and should be sensitized on the dangers of heavy metals on their healthItem Health risk implications of lead, cadmium, zinc, and nickel for consumers of food items in Migori Gold mines, Kenya(Elsevier, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2020) Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Ngure, VeronicaThis paper reports on the concentration levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn) and nickel (Ni) in soil and water in the Migori gold mining area of Kenya. To determine the possible entry into the food chain, samples of fish, maize, cabbages, mangoes, potatoes and human scalp hair were collected and analysed from three (3) sites within and one (1) site outside, the study area. The aim was to establish potential health risks posed to miners and communities who consume food crops and fish harvested in the vicinity of the gold mining areas. Samples were prepared by standard methods and analysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). The concentration of Pb, Cd, Zn and Ni in soils exceeded the maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) for agricultural soil. Concentration levels in fish were above MAC levels. Concentration levels in food items were highest in maize, cabbages and potatoes, in that order. Human hair showed elevated levels of Ni above MAC values in some of the samples analysed while all hair samples had elevated Zn contents above MAC. These results indicate that the local food items commonly available in Migori gold mining villages may contribute to increased body burden of potentially harmful elements (PHEs), with R. argentea, maize and cabbages contributing the highest levels.Item In vitro activity of aqueous and methanol extracts of Callistemon citrinus (Family Myrtaceae) against Leishmania major(African Journal of Health Sciences, 2014-04) Anjili, Christopher O.; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Kabiru, Ephantus Wanjohi; Gikonyo, Nicholas K.; Ingonga, Johnny M.; Kigondu, Elizabeth M.Leishmania major is a protozoan parasite that causes cutaneous leishmaniasis and the standard drugs are expensive and toxic. Cheaper and safer natural drugs are therefore needed. In this study, the in vitro efficacy of crude extracts of Callistemon citrinus were tested against L. major. Controls were anti leishmanial drugs pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of C. citrinus crude aqueous and methanolic extracts were 5mg/ml and 1mg/ml respectively compared to 12.5μg/ml and 6.25μg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B respectively. The IC50 for C. citrinus extracts against promastigotes ranged from 297.75 to 572.69μg/ml compared to 0.26 and 0.82μg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B. The IC50 for C. citrinus extracts against vero cells ranged from 467μg/ml to 1314.65μg/ml. The promastigotes’ viability after treatment with aqueous and methanolic extracts was 69.58% and 75.74% respectively. At 125μg/ml, the aqueous and methanolic C. citrinus extracts had in vitro amastigotes’ infection rates (IRs) of 77.0±2.50 % and 77.5±3.50% respectively. The multiplication indices (MIs) and IRs of amastigotes treated with C. citrinus crude aqueous extracts and those treated with crude methanolic extracts differed insignificantly (P > 0.05). C. citrinus methanolic extracts stimulated production of about 20μM nitric oxide in BALB/c mice peritoneal macrophages suggesting immuno-modulatory role of the extracts. The crude aqueous and methanolic extracts of C. citrinus were therefore concluded to be relatively less toxic and possessed in vitro anti-leishmanial activity against L. major promastigotes and amastigotes.Item In vitro and in vivo activities of blends of crude aqueous extracts from Allium sativum L, Callistemon citrinus (Curtis) Skeels and Moringa stenopetala (Baker F) Cufodontis against Leishmania major(Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants, 2013-06) Kabiru, Ephantus Wanjohi; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Anjili, Christopher O.; Gikonyo, Nicholas K.; Kigondu, Elizabeth M.; Ingonga, Johnstone M.Leishmania major caused cutaneous leishmaniasis leads to painful skin sores in humans and usual drugs are expensive, toxic, and require prolonged use. The in vitro and in vivo efficacy of aqueous crude extracts from Callistemon citrinus flowers (B), Allium sativum bulbs (C) and Moringa stenopetala leaves (A) against L. major was studied. Controls were pentostam, liposomal amphotericin B, and phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Dried and ground plant materials were soaked in distilled water at 70oC for 1.5 hours, filtered and freeze dried to obtain aqueous extracts. L. major infected BALB/c mice were treated orally or intra peritoneally (ip) with blends of the extracts. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of single extracts ranged from 3 to 5mg/ml while IC50 from 297 to 575μg/ml compared to MICs of 12.50 and 6.25μg/ml and IC50 of 0.26 and 0.82μg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B respectively. Blends of M. stenopetala and C. citrinus (AB), M. stenopetala and A. sativum (AC), and C. citrinus and A. sativum (BC) at concentrations based on MICs of individual extracts were active at ratios 1:1, 1:9 and 1:1 with promastigotes’ viabilities of 33.82%, 17.41% and 60.74 % respectively. IC50 for blends AB, AC, and BC ranged from 174μg/ml to 1314μg/ml against promastigotes. The individual extracts comprising blends AB, AC and BC interacted additively and synergistically in several combination ratios. Blend AC (1:1) at 125μg/ml had in vitro infection rate (IR) of 71% and multiplication index (MI) of 48.20% for L. major amastigotes compared to IR of 67% and MI of 47.51% for pentostam at 12.50μg/ml. Oral blend BC (1:1) reduced the mice footpad lesion size significantly (P < 0.05). Both oral blends BC and AC reduced mice spleen amastigotes by 48.33% and 60.94% with total LDUs of 6.35 ± 0.66 and 4.80 ± 0.95 respectively. Oral blend AB (1:1) lowered spleen amastigotes by 6.5% with total LDU of 11.49 ± 6.84. In conclusion, aqueous blends of C. citrinus, A. sativum and M. stenopetala extracts that interacted additively or synergistically were less toxic but active against L. major.Item Levels of heavy metals in wastewater and soil samples from open drainage channels in Nairobi, Kenya: community health implication(Scientific Reports, 2020) Kamau, Luna; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Ngure, Veronica; Beti, Dunstone; Lugalia, Reuben; Wangila, AgnesLevels of Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni) & Thallium (Tl) were established in wastewater & soil samples obtained from 8 sites in open drainage channels at Nairobi industrial area, Kenya. Ultra-trace inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) was used for metal analysis. Temperature, pH & turbidity of wastewater ranged from 16.75 to 26.05 °C; 7.28 to 8.78; 160.33 to 544.69 ppm respectively and within World Health Organization (WHO) allowable limits. Wastewater conductivities in 4 sites ranged from 770 to 1074 μS/cm and above WHO limits at 25 °C. The mean concentrations of the metals in wastewater ranged from 0.0001 to 0.015 ppm in an ascending order of TlItem Lifestyles and Practices that Enhance Malaria and Typhoid Fever in Njoro District, Kenya(Journal of Community Health, 2011-07) Kabiru, Ephantus Wanjohi; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Gicheru, Michael M.; Ngure, Peter KamauUnhygienic practices have been associated with the spread of parasitic and bacterial infections in rural areas. This study was designed to verify the link between the frequencies of malaria and typhoid fever with selected rural practices in Njoro District, Kenya. A cross-sectional study involving observations, questionnaires and interviews was conducted to determine the socio-economic variables and practices/lifestyles in 336 randomly selected homesteads. Frequencies of malaria and typhoid fever in two randomly selected health centers were determined through a retrospective study for the period from 2004 to 2009. The respondents had large families (68%), low education level (67%) and high responsibility burden (67%). Individuals who did not boil drinking water constituted 61%. Boiling drinking water was less common among the poor, Odds Ratio (OR) of 2.36, v2 = 9.88, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) of 1.38–4.03. Respondents who washed their hands in a basin after using the latrines comprised 79.8% while 4.8% did not. 18.5% of theItem Monitoring Exposure to Heavy Metals through Maize Consumption Using Human Hair among Male Adults in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya(Laikipia University College, Moi University, Daystar University, 2011-09-01) Ngure, Veronica; Simiyu, Gelas; Sitati, Noah; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Shisia, SilvanusThis paper reports on findings using hair as biomonitor marker for heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr and Cu) from geological source and exposure through regular maize consumption among selected male adults in Eldoret Municipality who had resided for five continous years. Concentration of Pb and Cu in anthropogenic pathways, while Cd and Cr reflected accumulation from the human activities. Usually higher concentration of heavy metals hair samples suggest longer term exposure. The estimated intake of Cd and Cr from maize in one zone associated with high concentration of the metals from geological source was appreciably above the respective recommended daily allowance (RDA), signifying possible health risks to humans. Significant correlations between Pb, Cd and Cu in hair and heavy metals from maize consumed suggested maize consumption as possible pathways of exposure of heavy metals in humans. Possible health risks from heavy metals were likely due to consumption of higher quantities of maize contaminated from geological and human activitiesItem Mosquito Diversity in the Nairobi – Kenya Urban Environment and Implications for Disease Transmission(2020-05-23) Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Ngure, Veronica ; Kamau, Luna; Beti, Dunstone; Lugalia, Reuben; Wangila, Agnes; Ngari, Florence Wanja; Mburu, Faith W.; Kiarie, MarthaMosquito surveillance and control efforts especially those carried out under programmatic settings by mosquito control departments of governments in many situations in Africa tend to focus on rural locales, mainly because this is where mosquito transmitted diseases have been found to be prevalent. In a recent study, we found an abundance of mosquitogenic conditions conducive for mosquito breeding in Nairobi in areas in close proximity to informal settlements, similar to previous studies. Thirteen different mosquito species were identified with Culex pipiens accounting for over 97% of the 7,605 mosquitoes sampled. Implications for disease transmission within the context of climate change and other factors are discussed. The evidence points to the need for enhanced vector surveillance and control in urban environments to minimize the risk of emergence and resurgence of mosquito-borne diseases.Item Relationship between control of parasitic infections and poverty levels: A case Study of Njoro District, Kenya(Kosin Journal of Health Sciences, 2020) Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Gicheru, Michael M.; Kiarie, Martha ; Kabiru, Wanjohi EphantusItem Relationship between Infections and poverty levels in Njoro District in Kenya - Kosin Journal of Health Sciences(Daystar University, Kenyatta University, Kosin University, 2020-05-23) Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Kiarie, Martha; Gicheru, Michael Muita; Kabiru, Ephantus Wanjohi; Lee, Dong-KyuA cross-sectional study was conducted in selected rural areas of Njoro in Kenya to determine the socio-economic variables, poverty levels and disease control practices among the residents in 336 homesteads. The objective was to establish the relationship between parasitic diseases control practices, lifestyles and poverty levels among the residents in the rural areas. In addition, a retrospective study that involved recording of the frequency of parasitic and bacterial diseases diagnosed and treated in four randomly selected health centres, in the study area, from 2004 to 2009 was carried out. The results showed that the rural residents in the study area tended to have large families (68%), low education level (67%), high responsibility burden (67%) and a large number were living below poverty line (81%). The low economic status of residents coupled with certain lifestyles and practices pre-disposed the residents to infectious diseases. It was observed that ‘not boiling drinking water’ had a higher probability of occurring among the lower economic cadre of residents than in medium economic cadre [Odds Ratio (OR) = 2.36; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) of 1.38 – 4.03]. Occurrences probability of ‘not using a mosquito net’ (OR = 1.44) and ‘not using a toilet paper always’ (OR = 2.60) were higher in residents of low economic cadre. Retrospective survey showed that malaria had a higher frequency (42.75%), followed by typhoid fever (24.14%), Entamoeba histolytica (20.83%), Giardia lamblia (20.32%), intestinal worms (4.57%), Escherechia coli (3.35%) and Trichomonas hominis (1.63%). It was concluded that a combination of large family size, low education levels, high responsibility burdens, and low economic status contributed significantly to occurrence of infectious health conditions among rural residents in the study area.Item Selected practices among rural residents versus the prevalence of Amoebiasis and Giardiasis in Njoro Distrct, Kenya.(African Journal of Health Sciences, 2012) Ngure, Veronica; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Afolayan, Funmilayo I. D. ; Anjili, Christopher O.The study was designed to investigate on selected practices among rural population, and their likely contribution to the spread of amoebiasis (E. histolytica) and giardiasis (G. lamblia). A cross sectional study was carried out in three villages, namely Kikapu, Piave and Belbar in Njoro District, Kenya. Questionnaire, interviews and personal observations were used to obtain data from 336 randomly selected consenting individuals in homesteads in the three villages. A retrospective study was further carried out to establish the prevalence of E. histolytica and G. lamblia among outpatients attending two randomly selected health centers in the study area. Majority of the respondents’ highest education level was basic primary school education (61%), unemployment (98%) and with a monthly expenditure of less than 2200 Kenya Shillings or 28 US Dollars (81%). Eighty percent of the respondents were classified under low economic status. Eighty two percent reported lack of piped water and boiling of drinking water was less likely to occur among the low economic status respondents (Odds ratio (OR) = 0.423, 2 = 9.88; 95% CI of -5.74 to 6.58). However, washing of hands with soap after using a latrine seemingly was not influenced by economic status of the respondents (OR = 1; 2 = 0; 95% CI = 0). The level of education seemed to influence on the adoption of risky practices, such as, failure to boil drinking water was more likely to occur among respondents who had a low academic level (OR = 0.84, 2 = 0.04, 95% CI of -2.27 to 3.95). The stool tests records at Njoro PCEA health center showed that the prevalence of E. histolytica (20.83%) and G. lamblia (20.32%) were higher than the corresponding prevalence at Njoro County Council health center which were 1.34% and 0.00% respectively. Concurrent infections of E. histolytica and G. lamblia were absent in the two health centers. The trend of E. histolytica and G. lamblia followed an alternating pattern, in which an increase in one directly corresponded to a decrease in the other and vice versa in the two health centers. It was concluded that poverty and low education levels were significant factors that influenced on the adoption of risky lifestyles that were likely to enhance parasitic infections. There is a need for reliable diagnostic methods other than direct microscopy for E. histolytica and G. lamblia stool tests in order to minimize the wide variation of the results in the two health centers. Public health education should also be enhanced to discourage the adoption of risky practicesItem Toxicity and efficacy of aqueous crude extracts from Allium sativum, Callistemon citrinus and Moringa stenopetala against L. Major(Kabarak Journal of Research & Innovation, 2015) Gikonyo, Nicholas K.; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Anjili, Christopher O.; Kabiru, Ephantus Wanjohi ; Kigondu, Elizabeth M.; Ingonga, Johnny M.Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) treatment involves pentavalent antimonials, amphotericin B, pentamidine, miltefosine among others. These drugs are toxic, costly, and require prolonged use. CL is a protozoan skin infection which may lead to disfiguring and stigmatization. In Kenya, CL is common in Baringo County where it is caused by Leishmania major and transmitted by infected female phlebotomine sand fly. Leishmaniases are common in poverty stricken areas where victims opt for local herbal therapies. Herbs used haven’t been tested scientifically to verify their toxicity and efficacy. The current study determines in vitro toxicity and in vivo efficacy of aqueous crude extracts of Moringa stenopetala, Callistemon citrinus, and Allium sativum against L. major. The IC50 of aqueous extracts against promastigotes ranged from 297μg/ml to 575μg/ml compared to Pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B with IC50 of 0.26μg/ml and 0.82μg/ml respectively. The viability of promastigotes upon exposure to extracts ranged from 52.55% to 60.57%. Similarly the IC50 of extracts against vero cells ranged between 467μg/ml to 2105μg/ml compared to 108μg/ml and 60μg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B respectively. Orally administered A. sativum reduced L. major caused footpad lesions significantly (P < 0.05) when compared to control PBS. The efficacy of oral C. citrinus extracts (B) in reducing amastigotes in spleens of infected BALB/c mice was 82.99%, followed by oral M. stenopetala (A) at 66.96% and oral A. sativum (C) at 60.37% compared to pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B at 66.40% and 60.62% respectively. The difference between the mean total LDUs for aqueous oral C. citrinus extracts and control oral PBS was significant (P = 0.017). It was concluded that crude aqueous extracts of A. sativum, M. stenopetala, and C. citrinus show antileishmanial activity at low toxicity. Inclusion of garlic and moringa in the diets of people in leishmaniases foci should be emphasized.Item Urban mosquitoes and filamentous green algae: their biomonitoring role in heavy metal pollution in open drainage channels in Nairobi industrial area, Kenya(BMC Ecology and Evolution, 2021) Kamau, Luna; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Ngure, VeronicaBackground: Industrial wastewater is a human health hazard upon exposure. Aquatic organisms in contaminated wastewater may accumulate the toxic elements with time. Human population living in informal settlements in Nairobi industrial area risk exposure to such toxic elements. Biomonitoring using aquatic organisms in open drainage channels can be key in metal exposure assessment. Levels of Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Cd), Thallium (Tl), and Nickel (Ni) were established in samples of wastewater, filamentous green algae (Spirogyra) and mosquitoes obtained from open drainage channels in Nairobi industrial area, Kenya. Results: Pb, Cr, & Ni levels ranged from 3.08 to 15.31 μg/l while Tl, Hg, & Cd ranged from 0.05 to 0.12 μg/l in wastewater. The Pb, Cr, Ni, & Cd levels were above WHO, Kenya & US EPA limits for wastewater but Hg was not. Pb, Cr, Tl, & Ni levels in assorted field mosquitoes were 1.3–2.4 times higher than in assorted laboratory-reared mosquitoes. Hg & Cd concentrations in laboratory-reared mosquitoes (0.26 mg/kg & 1.8 mg/kg respectively) were higher than in field mosquitoes (0.048 mg/kg & 0.12 mg/kg respectively). The levels of Pb, Cr, & Ni were distinctively higher in field mosquito samples than in wastewater samples from the same site. Pb, Cr, Ni, Cd & Hg levels in green filamentous Spirogyra algae were 110.62, 29.75, 14.45, 0.44, & 0.057 mg/kg respectively. Correlation for Pb & Hg (r (2) = 0.957; P < 0.05); Cd & Cr (r (2) = 0.985; P < 0.05) in algae samples was noted. The metal concentrations in the samples analyzed were highest in filamentous green algae and least in wastewater. Conclusion: Wastewater, mosquitoes, and filamentous green algae from open drainage channels and immediate vicinity, in Nairobi industrial area (Kenya) contained Hg, Pb, Cr, Cd, Tl, and Ni. Mosquitoes in urban areas and filamentous green algae in open drainage channels can play a role of metal biomonitoring in wastewater. The potential of urban mosquitoes transferring heavy metals to human population from the contaminated wastewater should be investigated.