LEADERSHIP STYLE AND PROJECT PERFORMANCE AMONG NOT-FOR- PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS IN KENYA: A CASE OF THE KENYA SCOUTS ASSOCIATION by Beryl Okuku A Thesis submitted to the School of Business and Economics of Daystar University Nairobi, Kenya In partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION in Project Management and Strategic Management October 2024 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy ii DECLARATION LEADERSHIP STYLE AND PROJECT PERFORMANCE AMONG NOT-FOR- PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS IN KENYA: A CASE OF THE KENYA SCOUTS ASSOCIATION This Thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university or any other award. Sign: Date: __________________ ________________ Beryl Amondi Okuku, 20-0088 We confirm that the work presented in this thesis was carried out by the student under our supervision. Sign: Date: ____________________ ________________ Philemon Yugi, PhD., 1st Supervisor ____________________ ________________ Justice Nzioki Mutua, PhD., 2nd Supervisor Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy iii Copyright©2024 Beryl Amondi Okuku Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy iv APPROVAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND PROJECT PERFORMANCE AMONG NOT-FOR- PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS IN KENYA: A CASE OF THE KENYA SCOUTS ASSOCIATION by Beryl Okuku 20-0088 In accordance with Daystar University policies, this thesis is accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Business Administration Degree Sign: Date: _________________________ ________________ Joseph Munyao, MSc., HOD, Department of Commerce _________________________ ________________ Laban Chesang, PhD., Dean, School of Business and Economics Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I thank God for granting me the strength, wisdom, and perseverance to complete this thesis. My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr. Philemon Yugi and Dr. Justice Nzioki, whose unwavering support and insightful guidance were instrumental in shaping this project. I am truly grateful for your commitment to my academic journey. I also extend my heartfelt appreciation to my son, Logan, and my spouse, Leonard, who have been my pillars of strength throughout this process; your love and support have kept me grounded and motivated. Lastly, I acknowledge my best friend and study buddy, Jennifer Muthoki, for always uplifting me and reminding me of my capabilities. Your companionship has made this journey more manageable. Without the support of all of you, I would not have come this far. Thank you all for your invaluable contributions to my success. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy vi DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to God, whose guidance and strength have illuminated my path and provided the fortitude to overcome challenges. Your blessings have been the foundation of this journey. And to my beloved son, Logan Ace, whose joy and love have been a constant source of inspiration; this work is dedicated to you, with hopes that you will one day see the fruits of perseverance and dedication. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ........................................................................................................... ii APPROVAL ................................................................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... v DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ ix LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... x ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. xii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM.......... 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 Background to the Research Problem ........................................................................ 3 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................... 10 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................ 12 Justification of the Study ......................................................................................... 13 Significance of the Study ......................................................................................... 14 Assumptions of the Study ........................................................................................ 15 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ............................................................. 16 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................... 16 Operational Definition of Terms .............................................................................. 17 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 22 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 22 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 22 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................ 22 General Literature Review ....................................................................................... 29 Empirical Literature Review .................................................................................... 40 Summary of Research Gaps ..................................................................................... 50 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 56 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 57 CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 59 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................................. 59 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 59 Philosophical Underpinnings ................................................................................... 59 Sample Size .............................................................................................................. 62 Types of Data ........................................................................................................... 63 Data Collection Instruments .................................................................................... 63 Data Collection Procedures ...................................................................................... 64 Pretesting of the Research Instrument ..................................................................... 65 Operationalization and Measurement of Study Variables ....................................... 67 Unit of Analysis ....................................................................................................... 67 Data Analysis Plan and Data Management .............................................................. 69 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 71 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 71 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 72 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ......... 72 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 72 Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation ........................................................ 72 Summary of Key Findings ..................................................................................... 125 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy viii Chapter Summary .................................................................................................. 127 CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................... 129 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................... 129 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 129 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 129 Recommendations from the Study ......................................................................... 131 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 147 Appendix A: Questionnaire ................................................................................... 147 Appendix B: Ethical Clearance .............................................................................. 154 Appendix C: Research Permit ................................................................................ 155 Appendix D: Similarity Index Report .................................................................... 156 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary of Research Gaps........................................................................... 50 Table 2: Target Population .......................................................................................... 62 Table 3: Reliability of Instruments .............................................................................. 67 Table 4:Operationalization and measurement of study variables ............................... 67 Table 5: Response Rate ............................................................................................... 72 Table 6:Gender Distribution........................................................................................ 73 Table 7:Age distribution of Respondents ..................................................................... 73 Table 8: Respondents’ Position in Organization ......................................................... 74 Table 9: Department of Service ................................................................................... 75 Table 10: Highest Education Level.............................................................................. 75 Table 11: Years of Service ........................................................................................... 76 Table 12: Leadership Style .......................................................................................... 77 Table 13: Transformational Leadership ...................................................................... 78 Table 14: Transactional Leadership ............................................................................ 80 Table 15: Servant Leadership ...................................................................................... 82 Table 16: Bureaucratic Leadership ............................................................................. 84 Table 17: Autocratic Leadership ................................................................................. 86 Table 18: Democratic Leadership ............................................................................... 88 Table 19: Project Scope ............................................................................................... 90 Table 20: Project Schedule .......................................................................................... 91 Table 21: Project Cost ................................................................................................. 93 Table 22: Overall Project Performance ...................................................................... 94 Table 23: Effect of Leadership Styles on Performance ............................................... 97 Table 24: Leadership Styles and Project Cost ........................................................... 100 Table 25: Leadership Styles and Project Schedule .................................................... 101 Table 26: Leadership Styles and Project Scope ........................................................ 102 Table 27: Moderating Variables ................................................................................ 104 Table 28: Leadership Challenges Faced by the Organisation .................................. 105 Table 29: Descriptive Analysis of Leadership ........................................................... 107 Table 30: Model Summary of Leadership Style on Project Performance ................. 108 Table 31: ANOVA Test for Leadership Style on Project Performance ..................... 108 Table 32: Coefficient of Leadership Style on Project Performance .......................... 109 Table 33: Descriptive Analysis of Transformational Leadership and Performance . 111 Table 34: ANOVA Test: Transformational Leadership and Project Performance ... 112 Table 35: Correlation Between Leadership Styles and Performance ....................... 113 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Theoretical Framework diagram ................................................................. 29 Figure 2: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................... 56 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CBO Community-Based Organization DU-ISERC Daystar University Institutional Scientific and Ethical Review Committee KSA Kenya Scouts Association NACOSTI National Science, Technology and Innovation NGO Non-Governmental Organization NGOCB Non-Governmental Organizations Co-ordination Board NFP Not-for-Profit OLS Organizational Leadership Styles PM Project Management PMI Project Management Institute PMT Performance-Maintenance Theory PP Project Performance SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences TJNA Tax Justice Network Africa TLT Transformational Leadership Theory ToP Theory of Performance Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy xii ABSTRACT Not-for-profit organizations (NFPS) in Kenya address social, economic, and environmental challenges, often filling gaps in government services in areas like education, health, and poverty alleviation. Relying on donor funding, grants, and community support, they work to improve the well-being of their beneficiaries. Effective leadership is crucial for optimizing project performance and managing resources in NFPS, as these organizations face challenges such as limited resources, regulatory constraints, and stakeholder expectations, requiring flexible leadership for project success and sustainability. The problem addressed in this study was the potential decline in project performance attributed to ineffective leadership styles, a prevalent issue in Kenya’s NFP sector. The purpose of the research was to examine the effects of different leadership styles on project performance, with a specific focus on the Kenya Scouts Association (KSA). The study aimed to identify the leadership styles used at KSA, assess project performance, and evaluate the influence of leadership styles on project outcomes. The justification for this study was grounded in the crucial role that effective leadership plays within NFPs, where resource limitations and high expectations often pose significant challenges to project execution. Grounded in Situational Leadership Theory, the Theory of Performance, and the anchor theory, the Performance-Maintenance Theory, the research used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the data and derive meaningful conclusions. Explanatory research design was employed. The target population consisted of all 65 employees and volunteers working on projects at the KSA headquarters in Nairobi, and a census was conducted, ensuring full participation. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to measure reliability, while ANOVA Test and Pearson correlation co- efficient assessed the relationships and impact of leadership styles on project performance. Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires and analyzed descriptively using SPSS Version 26.). These results of the study demonstrate that leadership styles significantly impacted key project performance areas like scope, scheduling, and costs. The analysis also showed a high mean score (4.35) for transformational leadership, with minimal variability (0.85), indicating strong and consistent agreement on its positive impact on project outcomes. Additionally, the regression analysis demonstrated that leadership styles accounted for 10.2% of the variance in project performance (R² = 0.102), with the F-statistic being statistically significant (p < 0.05). Pearson correlation analysis found that transformational leadership had strong positive correlations with project scope (0.451**), schedule (0.422**), and cost (0.441**). Similarly, transactional leadership also showed significant positive correlations with scope (0.446**), schedule (0.481**), and cost (0.424**). Servant leadership demonstrated moderate correlations with schedule (0.281*) and cost (0.304**), while bureaucratic leadership showed weaker correlations with scope (0.334), schedule (0.230**), and cost (0.251*). Autocratic and democratic leadership styles had weaker yet significant correlations with project performance. In conclusion, the study highlighted that project performance at KSA was closely linked to the leadership styles used, with transformational and democratic leadership being especially effective. It recommended that KSA management reconsider the use of bureaucratic leadership and adopt more flexible approaches to improve efficiency. Additionally, measures should be put in place to address delays and ensure projects are delivered on time and within budget. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM Introduction Despite the recognition not-for-profit organizations (NFPs) get globally, studies show that as a research topic, there is a rather limited existing comprehensive review, leading to a substantial body of literature that lacks cohesion (Gee et al., 2022). Private organizations classified as not-for-profit provide essential social services to the community and the general benefit without distributing profits to their members (Nahavandi, 2012; Worth, 2009). NFPs are entities that operate for the benefit of society without aiming to generate profit, focusing on fostering participation and solidarity to address societal issues. (Andrei et al., 2018; Morrison, 2016). Having the appropriate leadership style is essential not only to every project’s performance but for the entire organization’s performance. Gandolfi and Stone (2018) described leadership as being highly intentional. In that regard, an organization’s leadership should be intentional in applying suitable leadership styles that will support good performance of their projects. However, since every leader may have his own set of leadership style, this may affect the performance of the project differently, especially since the project team may respond differently to various leadership styles (Pretorius et al., 2018). Leadership can be described as the process through which an individual exerts influence over a group to accomplish personal or shared objectives of the group or organization (Olanrewaju and Okorie, 2019). Many researchers have emphasized the development of different leadership styles, including transactional, laissez-faire, autocratic, bureaucratic, contingency, charismatic, visionary, democratic and transformational leadership style (Axelos, 2017; Bwalya, 2023; Głodziński, 2019; Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 2 Specchia et al., 2021). Leadership involves control and is related with how the leader influences followers and the communication that takes place between them (Ruben & Gigliotti, 2016). Leadership style is a combination of diverse features, traits and behaviors used by leaders to interact with their followers (Northouse, 2018). Project performance refers to how effectively a project achieves the objectives set by different stakeholders upon completion and can be assessed through metrics and key performance indicators (KPIs) or by using criteria such as relevance, impact, and sustainability of the project (Delise et, al., 2023; Głodziński, 2019). Various studies have made attempts to come up with the best criterion that best measures project success with scholars like Kamau and Bin-Mohamed (2015) indicating that project success can be evaluated based on project completion within the scheduled time, reasonable cost and acceptable budget, attainment of quality as well as achieving user satisfaction. Organizational leadership plays a pivotal role in shaping the success and performance of projects within a company. The style of leadership adopted by an organization's leadership team significantly influences the project management processes, team dynamics, and overall project outcomes. This study delved into the relationship between organizational leadership style and project performance, exploring how specific leadership approaches may either catalyze or impede project success. By understanding this connection, organizations can make informed decisions about their leadership strategies, fostering a project environment that maximizes efficiency, innovation, and overall effectiveness (Sultoni et al., 2017). This chapter encompasses the introduction and background of the study; briefly describing the key variables of the study and their relationship, the statement of the problem is discussed showing the research gap that the study aims to feel, purposes of Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 3 the study, objectives of the study and related research questions, the justification, significance and assumptions of the study are also stated. Limitations that the study may encounter are identified, the scope is discussed on various aspects. Lastly the operational definitions of terms critical to the study is provided. Background to the Research Problem Several studies have suggested that the leadership style adopted within an organization affects its overall performance. (Akparep et al., 2019). Leadership styles are important for effective project management and can significantly influence the success of a project (Zheng et al., 2021). A study conducted by Seyedsafi (2017) concluded that the success rates for projects in the United States within the three States of Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia fell from 62% in 2012 to 60% in 2015 and highlighted the need for project managers to possess emotional intelligence and sound leadership styles in order to reduce the risks of project failure. Eltayeb and Ahmad (2021) carried out a study to examine the impact of leadership on project performance in Saudi Arabia and determined that the transformational leadership style is more effective and significantly enhances the project performance contrary to transactional leadership style. In China, empirical literature suggests that there exist some leadership styles that are strongly linked with failure of projects (Yang et al., 2011), while in Indonesia, research conducted to investigate the effect of leadership styles on project performance concluded that leadership styles had a consequential effect on the performance of deep-water project in the Indonesian organization under study (Sultoni et al., 2017). In the African continent, several studies have been conducted in an attempt to link leadership style with project performance. A study conducted by Liphadzi et al. (2015) investigated the relationship between leadership style on the project Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 4 performance in Construction Industry in South Africa revealed that while there was a significant relationship between transformational and transactional leadership styles on the performance of projects, democratic leadership style showed minimal correlation with project performance while there was no significant relationship between laissez-faire and autocratic leadership styles and project performance. Esperance (2015) conducted research investigating the connection between different leadership styles and community-based watershed project performance in Rwanda and discovered that there existed a considerable connection between leadership styles and the success of the project. Kenyan scholars have not been left behind either in their research studies as they endeavor to find the connection between leadership style and project performance. For instance, Njeri and Were (2017) highlighted that most projects fail to perform as expected and that in Kenya, over 30% of non-governmental organizations (NGO) experience lack of performance in their projects due to a lack of executive leadership support, schedule and culture despite the significant advances that the project management discipline has experienced in recent years. A study conducted by Karamunya (2017) noted a significant and positive relationship between transformational and transactional leadership styles on the performance of Kenyan projects while another study conducted by Kariuki (2018) on the effect of a project manager’s leadership style on performance of water projects in Kenya concluded that there is a notable connection between the project manager’s leadership style and the project's performance. In the dynamic landscape of project management, organizational leadership stands as a critical factor influencing the success or failure of projects. The leadership style adopted within an organization plays a pivotal role in shaping the work Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 5 environment, guiding team interactions, and ultimately impacting project outcomes. As organizations globally strive for excellence in project execution, understanding the specific dynamics between leadership styles and project performance becomes paramount. This study focused on the analysis of organizational leadership styles and their effect on project performance, illustrated through a particular case study on the Kenya Scouts Association. Leadership Style While Zulch (2014) saw leadership as a set of habits intended to combine organizational requirements with individual interests in the pursuit of goals, Ganta and Manukonda (2014) defined leadership as a form of power in which one person has the capacity to influence the values, beliefs, behavior, and attitudes of another person. According to Northouse (2018), the essence of leadership is persuading others to make decisions that are significant for the company. Leadership is the process of inspiring followers to commit their entire being, with passion and integrity, to realizing a shared vision or value added. The power of a leader's influence is what inspires each member of a team to willingly work together to accomplish the goals that their leader has set forth. Conforming to the argument, Hendarman and Cantner (2018) opined that leadership competency has flourished and gained immense prominence because it presumes inspiration and assimilation for the advancement of trust and relationships among the project team members. Covelli (2018) posited that authenticity is a leadership quality that fosters a positive environment and supports the decision-making process, particularly when challenging decisions need to be made. Gandolfi (2016) proposed an idealized set of five elements that make up leadership: there should be one or more leaders; followers; action-oriented with a rational plan of action; and goals and objectives that the leadership strives to achieve. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 6 The notion of an organization as a "machine" where leaders at the top of the hierarchy direct and control processes, has become less common over the past 20 years. Instead, the organization is now seen as a dynamic system of interconnected relationships and networks of influence. As a result, the idea of leadership has had to change. This study employed six leadership styles: transformational, transactional, bureaucratic, democratic, autocratic and servant as the drivers of project performance. The rationale for settling on these six leadership styles lied on the fact that they are some of the most practiced leadership styles globally (Khan et al., 2015; Murari, 2011; Northouse, 2018). As such carrying out a study on them may improve ideologies on these leadership styles further and lead to reduced research gap. Project Performance The University of Massachusetts (2021) defined a project as a temporary venture with a beginning and an end date that is undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result within specified limitations. When a project works effectively, it benefits the organization and the community as a whole, claims Seyedsafi (2017). According to Głodzināski (2019), the traditional method links project performance to assessments of scope, quality, and cost. The Iron Triangle's variables can be used to gauge a project's performance. Often referred to as the “triple constraints”, the iron triangle illustrates the connection between a project's major performance metrics. According to Pollack, Helm, and Adler's (2018) study, there is variation in the components that are represented at the vertices of the iron triangle. They discovered strong correlations between time, cost, and quality, which were found to be more significant than correlations with other variables like scope, performance, or requirements. Seyedsafi (2017) went on to say that in order to satisfy client demands, the project manager must strike a balance Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 7 between time, budget, and quality limitations, whereas Van der Hoorn and Whitty (2015) critiqued the validity of the Iron Triangle in relation to how practitioners manage projects arguing that that it creates a fallacy on the perception of impossibility of complete control over project outcomes. Koops et al. (2017) performed a study to determine which success factors are significant to project managers in response to the argument that project managers do not view the iron triangle—cost, quality, and schedule—as being of main significance when determining the success of their projects. According to their analysis the top three metrics of the projects’ performance were continuance of client organization, project delivery on schedule and influence on the professional image of client organization. However, this research was confined to public project managers from Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the United Kingdom. This study used the Iron Triangle components of project scope, project schedule and project cost as project performance measurement criteria on the basis that researchers such as Cuganesan (2019) corroborated that most scholars and project leadership use the trio as a measurement criterion for project performance. Project scope, cost and schedule covered measurement aspects such as cost, goals, deliverables, timelines, tasks and activities. (PMI, 2017). Leadership Style and Project Performance The necessity for empirical research on the connection between project performance and leadership style was stated by Kariuki (2018) in his empirical examination of the evaluation of the reasons for project failure. Individuals' leadership and performance vary from culture to culture and nation to nation based on people's knowledge and experience as well as their life patterns, beliefs, and value systems (Trompenaars, 2013). Shore (2015) asserts that leadership styles have an impact on Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 8 the project's culture, strategy, and team commitment, while Mary (2018) adds that a leader's efficacy and level of technical and professional experience are also influenced by their style of leadership. All these factors are critical to a project's success. Despite the significant investments and the application of widely accepted traditional project methods and techniques, Kiooh's (2015) study on the impact of project management leadership on the performance of information technology projects in Kenya revealed that leadership styles did have an impact on project performance. Additionally, the study revealed a deficiency in the leadership competencies necessary for successful project performance. A study by Mary (2018) examining the impact of project management leadership on project performance in Kitui County, Kenya, found that most respondents believed leadership styles significantly influence project outcomes. Among these styles, democratic leadership, where employees are involved in the decision-making process and the leader maintains frequent and supportive communication, was identified as the most effective. Conversely, the laissez-faire leadership style received little support from the respondents. In contrast, Hughes, Ginnett and Curphy (2015) argued that leadership being an art, there exists no singular principle that can be defined as the most effective and applicable, and in order to best comprehend the effectiveness of a leader, leadership must be assessed based on the leader- follower situational interaction model. The link between leadership styles and project performance is multi-faceted, with each leadership style contributing differently to project outcomes. Transformational leadership tends to drive higher project performance through inspiration and personal development. Transactional leadership can ensure efficiency and meet specific project targets through structured rewards and monitoring. Servant Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 9 leadership fosters a supportive environment that enhances team cohesion and satisfaction, potentially leading to improved project results. By examining these dynamics within the Kenya Scouts Association, it is possible to identify which leadership styles are most effective for different types of projects and contexts, leading to more informed and strategic leadership practices. Kenya Scout Association The Kenya Scouts Association is an educational, non-political Movement that contributes to the growth and advancement of young people in realizing their full physical, intellectual, social, emotional and spiritual potentials and is open to all young people between the ages of 6-26 years. It provides non-formal education, which compliments the core curriculum offered in schools and colleges. The Association offers young people opportunities to engage in programs, events, activities, and projects that support their development as active citizens. These initiatives enable them to become catalysts for positive change, motivating others to act towards creating a better world (Kenya Scouts Association, 2023). The Association is the largest Scout organization in Africa and ranked 6th in the world with a current membership of over 4.4 million young boys and girls, and over 40,000 adults who support the young people in various capacities (World Organization of the Scout Movement, 2024). Since its establishment in 1910 by an Act of Parliament Cap 219 of the Laws of Kenya, the Association has grown into a dynamic Youth Movement and continues to mold and impact not only the lives of young people in Kenya, but that of the society as a whole (Kenya Scouts Association, 2023). The choice of the Kenya Scouts Association as a case study is motivated by the organization's devotion to fostering leadership skills, teamwork, and community Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 10 engagement among its millions of members. By examining the leadership styles employed within this context, this study sought to uncover insights that are not only applicable to the specific case but also enhance the overall comprehension of the interaction between leadership and project performance in non-profit and youth- focused organizations. Statement of the Problem Despite the critical role of leadership in project success, there is a lack of comprehensive research on how different leadership styles impact project outcomes within Kenya's not-for-profit (NFP) sector. Mary (2018) as informed by Vroom and Jago, highlights that project failure is common in NFPs, a problem exacerbated by inadequate leadership. There is need for further investigation into leadership's direct influence on project success or failure, as this gap in understanding can result in inefficient management, misaligned goals, and poor resource utilization, leading to project underperformance (Lichtenstein et al., 2022; Vitez, 2017). Mearian and Songini (2002) illustrate how many poverty alleviation projects in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia failed or had to be restructured due to poor leadership. This issue is particularly significant in resource-constrained environments where NFPs, relying on volunteers and donor funding, are highly impacted by leadership quality (Van Puyvelde et al., 2020). The problem addressed in this study was the potential decline in project performance attributed to ineffective leadership styles, a prevalent issue in Kenya’s NFP sector. Challenges such as resource limitations, stakeholder complexities, and regulatory pressures exacerbate this problem, leading to project inefficiencies and failure (Makau, 2018; Wanjiru, 2019). Reports from the World Bank (2021) and Kenya Association of Non-Governmental Organizations (2022) highlight leadership Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 11 deficiencies as significant factors in poor project performance in NFPs. Previous research also shows mixed results on the impact of leadership styles on project performance. For instance, studies by Ali et al. (2021), Liphadzi et al. (2015), and Makena and Muchelule (2018) found a positive correlation between leadership styles and project performance, whereas Keegan and Hartog (2004) found no such link. Additionally, while Kariuki (2018) focused on time and cost and Mithamo & Chowdhuri (2022) focused on cost, time and stakeholder satisfaction as measurement criteria for project performance, this study also included project scope element in addition to cost and schedule to address such gaps. The problem of inadequate leadership and poor project performance in KSA arises from leadership practices that fail to meet the organization’s needs, leading to project inefficiencies and underperformance. However, specific leadership practices impacting project success have not been extensively studied. This research, therefore, explored how different leadership styles within the KSA affected project performance, aiming to provide insights that will enhance leadership practices and project effectiveness. Overall, despite the crucial role of leadership, there is a need for comprehensive research on how various leadership styles influence project outcomes within Kenya’s NFP sector. Despite the recognized importance of leadership in driving project success, there was a significant gap in understanding how different leadership styles impacted project outcomes within Kenya's not-for-profit (NFP) sector. Previous research presented mixed results, with some studies showing positive correlations while others found no significant link (Ali et al., 2021; Keegan & Hartog, 2004). Additionally, much of the prior research focused on limited performance metrics such as time and cost, neglecting broader measures like project scope (Kariuki, 2018; Mithamo & Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 12 Chowdhuri, 2022). Inadequate leadership in resource-constrained environments like NFPs led to inefficiencies and project underperformance (Makau, 2018; Wanjiru, 2019). This study, therefore, addressed this gap by examining how various leadership styles influenced project performance within the Kenya Scouts Association, providing insights into leadership's role in enhancing project success in the NFP context. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of different leadership styles on project performance within the Kenya Scouts Association (KSA). Objectives of the Study The following research objectives guided this study: i. Identifying the leadership styles within the Kenya Scouts Association. ii. Assessing the performance of projects within the Kenya Scouts Association iii. Establishing the effect of leadership styles on project performance in the Kenya Scouts Association. iv. Investigating how government policies affected the relationship between leadership styles and project performance within the Kenya Scouts Association. Research Questions This research study was poised to address the following research questions: i. What were the existing leadership styles within the Kenya Scouts Association? ii. How were the projects within the Kenya Scouts Association performing? iii. What was the effect of different leadership styles on project performance within the Kenya Scouts Association? iv. How did government policies affect the relationship between leadership styles and project performance outcomes within the Kenya Scouts Association? Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 13 Justification of the Study The justification for this study was grounded in the crucial role that effective leadership plays within not-for-profit organizations (NFPs), where resource limitations and high expectations often pose significant challenges to project execution. Identifying leadership styles that are most conducive to successful project outcomes was vital for NFPs to maximize efficiency, innovation, and overall impact. Understanding these dynamics allows NFPs to tailor their leadership approaches to better manage and execute projects, ultimately enhancing project management and achievement (Choi & Pak, 2021). This study aimed to provide valuable insights that could help NFPs implement leadership strategies that align with their specific needs and operational contexts. Leadership styles have a profound impact on various aspects of organizational performance, including team cohesion, morale, and stakeholder engagement. A well- established link between leadership styles and project performance can guide NFPs in adopting practices that boost organizational effectiveness, thus enabling them to fulfill their missions more effectively and meet the needs of the communities they serve (Lichtenstein et al., 2022). Given that NFPs often operate with limited financial and human resources, understanding which leadership styles are most effective for managing these resources efficiently can lead to better utilization and reduced wastage. This insight is particularly crucial for optimizing performance in environments where resources are often stretched thin (Van Puyvelde et al., 2020). Additionally, leadership styles that foster engagement and commitment are essential in NFPs, where volunteers and stakeholders play a pivotal role in project success. Insights from this study can help NFPs improve relationships with these groups, enhancing collaboration and support for projects (Choi & Pak, 2021). Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 14 Moreover, by identifying which leadership styles are most impactful in various contexts within NFPs, the study can inform leadership development programs and training. This can help current and future leaders adopt best practices tailored to their organizational environments, ultimately leading to better project and organizational outcomes (Lichtenstein et al., 2022). The study fills a gap in contemporary research on leadership styles in the NFP sector. This research fills a gap in contemporary literature on leadership styles in the NFP sector, contributing valuable insights that have both academic and practical implications (Van Puyvelde et al., 2020). Significance of the Study This study would benefit project leaders, human resources professionals, academicians and researchers, and organizations. Project leaders can benefit from this study by adopting insights from the study to enhance their leadership strategies to improve team performance and project outcomes by highlighting areas for improvement in their leadership approach and providing them with tools to augment their effectiveness. By understanding the impact of leadership styles on project performance, leaders can refine their skills and strategies, contributing to their personal and professional development (Van Puyvelde et al., 2020). The academicians and researchers within the realm of project management and strategic management will benefit from this study by using it as a reference point that will enable them to further develop more knowledge about leadership styles and their potential effects on projects’ performance, providing a foundation for refined theoretical frameworks and new empirical evidence related to leadership and project management. Human Resources professionals can utilize the findings of this study to design and implement targeted training and development programs that focus on cultivating effective leadership styles within their organizations, thereby making more Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 15 informed decisions about leadership placements hence ensuring that contracted leaders are well-suited to their roles and projects. Organizations can use the findings from this study to implement effective leadership styles that enhance project success rates, leading to improved efficiency and productivity, better overall performance. By understanding which leadership styles are most effective for different types of projects, organizations can also tailor their leadership development programs and training to cultivate the most beneficial leadership practices. By understanding how different leadership styles influence project performance, NFPs can adopt practices that enhance project success rates and impact. This can lead to more effective and efficient project execution, directly contributing to the achievement of their missions (Choi & Pak, 2021; Lichtenstein et al., 2022). Assumptions of the Study i. All respondents had a good understanding on topic of study and will be willing to take part in the study with objectivity and would provide correct and truthful information to questions asked and explanations sought by the research instrument provided. ii. That the concerned NFP and its leadership would give the required support to the researcher to ensure accessibility and cooperation of the sampled respondents iii. The study assumed that various leadership styles (e.g., transformational, transactional, bureaucratic, servant, autocratic, and democratic, etc.) were distinct and could be clearly identified and categorized within not-for-profit organizations (NFPs). This distinction allowed for meaningful analysis of how each style impacts project performance. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 16 iv. The study assumes that the definitions and measurements of leadership styles and project performance metrics are consistent and reliable. This consistency is essential for accurately assessing the connection between leadership styles and project outcomes. v. The study assumes that the leadership styles identified in the research are implemented as described by participants. This means that the perceived leadership styles align with actual practices within the organization. Limitations and Delimitations of the Study Lack of honesty by respondents for fear of imagined retribution or negative exposure; the researcher will provide assurance to the respondents in writing that their response will only be used for research purposes and as such, their names or responses will not be exposed to the public and upon request, a copy of the research findings would be furnished to the organizations’ leadership. Project performance is affected by factors other than leadership styles; for the purpose of this research, the research questions focused only on leadership styles as a factor of influence in project performance. Scope of the Study The study focused on the operations of the Kenya Scouts Association (KSA), a major non-profit organization in Kenya dedicated to youth development. It examined projects and leadership practices across various regions in Kenya, without extending to international branches. This narrow focus allowed for a detailed contextual analysis, though it limited the applicability of findings to other organizations. The research analyzed six leadership styles—transformational, transactional, bureaucratic, servant, autocratic, and democratic—selected for their relevance in organizational literature, and assessed their effects on various projects, Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 17 including environmental conservation, community outreach, and educational programs. Project performance was evaluated through multiple metrics: project scope, schedule, cost, overall success, stakeholder satisfaction, and the quality of deliverables. Data were collected from specific groups within the KSA, including leaders, staff, and volunteers, using interviews and questionnaires. The dependent variable, Project Performance, was defined through sub-variables that measured the achievement of objectives, adherence to timelines, budget compliance, stakeholder contentment, and output quality. The independent variable, Leadership Style, included sub-variables characterizing each leadership approach, such as the inspirational aspects of transformational leadership, the reward-driven focus of transactional leadership, and the team-centric approach of servant leadership. Conducted over one month in September 2024, the study employed a mixed- methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative data collection methods, including interviews and organizational performance record reviews. This approach aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current leadership practices and their immediate impacts on project performance. Operational Definition of Terms Leadership style: this refers to guiding, executing plans, and inspiring individuals. It encompasses the behavior and attitudes that leaders exhibit in their interaction with employees or team members (Northouse, 2018). In this study, leadership style is used to examine how different approaches adopted by leaders within the Kenya Scouts Association influence the performance of projects, Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 18 particularly in terms of achieving organizational goals and optimizing resources. Transformational leadership: this is a leadership style in which leaders inspire and motivate their followers to prioritize the organization's welfare over their own personal interests (Bass & Riggio, 2006). This study explored how transformational leadership impacts the effectiveness of project outcomes at the Kenya Scouts Association by fostering innovation, commitment, and the development of a positive leadership style among team members. Transactional leadership: is characterized by a system of rewards and consequences, where leaders set clear goals and expectations, and followers are either rewarded or penalized according to their performance (Burns, 1978). In this study’s context, transactional leadership is analyzed to determine its effectiveness in achieving short-term project goals and maintaining control within the Kenya Scouts Association, especially regarding adherence to project timelines and standards. Servant leadership: is a leadership philosophy where the leader's main objective is to serve others, prioritizing the development and well-being of individuals and the communities they are part of (Greenleaf, 1977). This study examined how servant leadership within the Kenya Scouts Association influences project performance, particularly in creating Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 19 an environment where team members feel valued and supported, leading to improved project outcomes. Bureaucratic leadership: this style emphasizes strict adherence to rules, procedures, and policies, with leaders ensuring that their teams follow established guidelines (Weber, 1947). This study explores how bureaucratic leadership affects the performance of projects within the Kenya Scouts Association, particularly in ensuring consistency, order, and compliance with organizational policies. Autocratic leadership: is a style where leaders make decisions unilaterally, with minimal or no input from team members (Lewin et al., 1939). In this study, autocratic leadership is examined in relation to how it impacts the speed and efficiency of decision-making in projects within the Kenya Scouts Association, as well as its potential effects on team morale and creativity. Democratic leadership: engages team members in the decision-making process, encouraging participation and collaboration (Gastil, 1994). The study investigated how democratic leadership within the Kenya Scouts Association influences project performance by fostering a sense of ownership, accountability, and innovation among team members. Project performance: refers to the extent to which a project meets its goals while adhering to the constraints of scope, time, and cost (Kerzner, 2017). In this study, project performance was Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 20 the central variable used to evaluate the effectiveness of different leadership styles at the Association, focusing on how well projects meet their intended outcomes. Project scope: defines the boundaries of a project, including its objectives, deliverables, and tasks (PMI, 2021). This study used project scope to assess how leadership styles influence the ability of the Kenya Scouts Association to manage and control the scope of its projects, ensuring alignment with organizational goals. Project schedule: refers to the planned timeline for the completion of project tasks and milestones (Meredith & Mantel, 2012). The study examined the connection between leadership styles and project schedule adherence at the Kenya Scouts Association, with a focus on how leaders manage time and resources to ensure timely project completion. Project cost: encompasses all financial resources required to complete a project, including labor, materials, and overheads (Larson & Gray, 2018). This study investigated how leadership styles at the Kenya Scouts Association influence cost management, ensuring that projects are completed within budget while meeting organizational objectives. Government policy: refers to the regulations, laws, and directives issued by governmental bodies that impact organizational operations and project management (Anderson, 2011). In Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 21 this study, government policy was considered as an external factor that may affect project performance at the Kenya Scouts Association, particularly in areas such as funding and compliance. Organizational policy: consists of the internal rules, guidelines, and procedures established by an organization to govern its operations and decision-making processes (Robbins & Coulter, 2016). The study examined how organizational policies at the Kenya Scouts Association influence leadership practices and project performance, particularly in the context of resource allocation and stakeholder engagement. Chapter Summary This chapter includes the study's background information and introduction, as well as the problem statement, research problem, main goal for doing the study, research objectives, research questions, and study rationale. Furthermore, the study's delimitations, research assumptions, and limits are emphasized, along with an elucidation of the words employed. The literature review will be covered in the next part. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 22 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This chapter focuses on the theoretical framework supporting the study and offers a critical review of existing research on leadership styles and project performance within not-for-profit organizations like the Kenya Scouts Association (KSA). The literature review examines foundational concepts, empirical studies, and relevant theories to understand how different leadership styles impact project outcomes. It identifies gaps in knowledge that can inform more effective leadership practices aimed at improving project performance. By synthesizing current research, this review provides a basis for the study, highlighting areas where leadership can be enhanced to foster better results within the KSA and similar organizations. Through this analysis, the study aims to develop strategies that could lead to more successful project implementation in the not-for-profit sector. Theoretical Framework According to Grant and Osanloo (2014), the theoretical framework is the basis upon which all the knowledge for a research study is construed, both literally and symbolically. It provides structure and support for the study's purpose, significance, problem statement, justification, and research questions. Allen (2017) claims that the theoretical framework directs the formulation of research questions, provides guidance on data collecting and analytic methods, illuminates the debate around study findings, and may even highlight the prejudices of the researcher. Within the constraints of a given lens, a theoretical framework challenges and improves current knowledge while aiding in the explanation of phenomena (Luft et al., 2022). This Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 23 study encapsulated three theories, Situational Leadership theory, The Theory of Performance, and The Performance-Maintenance (PM) Theory of Leadership. Situational Leadership Theory Hersey and Blanchard created situational leadership theory (SLT) in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Their 1969 publication, "Management of Organizational Behavior," provides an overview of the idea. According to the principle, there isn't just one ideal way to lead. Effective leadership, on the other hand, is task-relevant, and the most effective leaders modify their approach according to the degree of maturity or preparedness of the person or group they are trying to lead or influence (House & Javidan, 2021). SLT has a number of strengths including emphasis on the need for leaders to be adaptable and flexible, adjusting their approach to leadership in response to the demands of their followers and the circumstances. The idea offers a simple structure that managers at all organizational levels may quickly comprehend and utilize. SLT highlights the importance of considering followers' development levels, ensuring that leaders provide the appropriate amount of guidance and support. It encourages leaders to help their followers grow and develop by adjusting their leadership style as followers become more capable and confident (Chen & Tjosvold, 2021). Some critics argue that there is limited empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of SLT. Research studies have produced mixed results regarding its validity. According to the notion, leaders should be able to quickly assess the developmental stage of their followers and modify their approach accordingly, which may not always be practical or accurate in complex real-world situations. While flexibility is a strength, some critics believe that SLT overemphasizes it to the detriment of other important leadership qualities, such as consistency and long-term Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 24 vision. The definitions of follower readiness levels and leadership styles can be somewhat vague and open to interpretation, leading to inconsistencies in application (House & Javidan, 2021). SLT is applied in not-for-profit organizations like the Kenya Scouts Association to manage volunteers and staff with varying levels of experience and commitment, ensuring that leadership approaches align with the objectives of the company and the needs of its members. In this study, the situational leadership theory approach was relevant as it recognized that there are several approaches that leaders can use in dealing with project performance problems, thereby avoiding the shortcomings associated with single leadership style approaches. As such, SLT gives increased awareness of the intricate dynamics of changing circumstances and the multitude of people occupying various leadership positions who will eventually influence the intended project performance outcome. The Theory of Performance The Theory of Performance (ToP) is a framework developed to understand and improve individual and organizational performance. This theory is not ascribed to a single author but has evolved through contributions from diverse disciplines, including psychology, education, management, and organizational behavior. Key contributors include Richard E. Boyatzis, who focused on competencies, and others who have explored performance improvement through different lenses (Black & Lynch, 2021). The Theory of Performance revolves around the idea that performance is a function of three primary components: Competence: the skills, knowledge, and abilities that an individual or organization possesses; Environment: the external conditions and context within which performance occurs, including resources, support Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 25 systems, and leadership style; and, Motivation: the internal drive or desire to perform, influenced by goals, incentives, and personal values. Performance can be enhanced by developing competence, optimizing the environment, and increasing motivation (Holten & Brenner, 2021). Additionally, the theory often considers the following elements: Clear objectives: specific, measurable goals that guide performance; feedback-information on performance that helps individuals and organizations make adjustments; Learning and development: continuous improvement through training, experience, and reflection (Nguyen & Tuan, 2021). Key strengths of the theory include consideration of multiple factors that influence performance, providing a comprehensive understanding. ToP offers actionable insights for improving performance at both individual and organizational levels. The theory can be applied across various fields and contexts and also emphasizes continuous learning and development, which is crucial for long-term success (Ahmed & Farooqi, 2021). The weaknesses of the theory include the multifaceted nature of performance can make it challenging to isolate specific variables and measure their impact accurately; the effectiveness of strategies derived from ToP can deviate greatly, contingent on the particular context and environment; elements such as motivation and competence can be difficult to quantify, leading to potential biases in assessment and improvement efforts and implementing comprehensive performance improvement strategies may require significant time, effort, and resources (Bradley & Adams, 2021). The Theory of Performance (ToP) is directly applicable to the study as it provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how leadership influences project outcomes. ToP's focus on competence, environment, and motivation aligns Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 26 well with the dynamics of not-for-profit organizations, where effective leadership is crucial for enhancing team skills, optimizing organizational conditions, and inspiring commitment to the mission. For instance, the theory suggests that a transformational leadership style, which emphasizes skill development, a supportive culture, and motivational practices, can significantly improve project performance by addressing these three components (Wang et al., 2011). Additionally, ToP highlights the importance of clear objectives, feedback, and continuous learning, all of which are essential for successful project execution in resource-constrained environments like not-for-profits (Nguyen & Tuan, 2021). By integrating these elements, the study explored how different leadership styles impact the performance of projects within the Kenya Scouts Association and offered insights into the most effective approaches for achieving project success in this context. The Performance-Maintenance (PM) Theory of Leadership Japanese psychologist Misumi Jyuji created the Performance-Maintenance (PM) Theory of Leadership in the 1960s. This theory is rooted in Japanese management practices and focuses on two primary dimensions of leadership behaviour: Performance (P) and Maintenance (M). Misumi's research aimed to understand how these dimensions influence leadership effectiveness in organizational settings, particularly in the context of Japanese companies (Dickson et al., 2020). The PM Theory posits that effective leadership involves balancing two key functions: Performance (P) Function whose aspect of leadership behaviour focuses on achieving organizational goals and improving productivity. It includes setting clear objectives, making decisions, solving problems, and monitoring performance. Leaders who excel in the performance function are results-oriented and emphasize efficiency and effectiveness. Maintenance (M) Function: this dimension emphasizes the well- Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 27 being, cohesion, and morale of the team. It includes activities such as supporting team members, fostering good relationships, facilitating communication, and addressing individual needs. Leaders who are strong in the maintenance function prioritize the social and emotional aspects of the team, ensuring a positive and supportive work environment. The most effective leaders are those who can integrate both performance and maintenance behaviours, modifying their strategy in response to the circumstances and the demands of their group (Chen & Tjosvold, 2021). Key strengths of the theory include a balanced approach: The PM theory emphasizes the significance of striking a balance between actions that are task and people-oriented, supporting a holistic perspective of leadership. According to the theory, leaders should be adaptive and flexible, changing their approach to suit the needs of various circumstances and team dynamics. It also provides a clear and actionable framework for leaders to assess and improve their effectiveness by focusing on both performance and maintenance functions. The theory is also cultural relevant in contexts where collectivist values and teamwork are emphasized, such as in many African cultures (Kim & Lee, 2020). The theory has a few weaknesses. The theory was developed within the context of Japanese leadership style, which may limit its applicability in more individualistic or different cultural settings. The binary focus on performance and maintenance might oversimplify the complexities of leadership, ignoring other important factors such as innovation, vision, and external environment. Assessing and balancing performance and maintenance behaviours can be challenging, especially in dynamic and fast-paced environments. While the theory has intuitive appeal, there is relatively limited empirical research validating its effectiveness across diverse contexts and industries (Cheng’ et al., 2020). Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 28 Performance Maintenance Theory (PMT) was justified as the anchor theory in this research on leadership style and project performance within KSA as it emphasized the importance of sustaining and enhancing performance over time, which is crucial for NFPs with specific missions. The theory allowed for a detailed examination of how different leadership styles influenced team motivation, alignment with organizational goals, and overall project success. Additionally, PMT provided insights into adapting to changing environments and stakeholder expectations, supporting continuous improvement and organizational learning, which are vital for maximizing impact in a dynamic context. Ultimately, PMT offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the interplay between leadership practices and sustained performance in not-for-profit settings. In such organizations, leaders are often required to meet organizational goals while also addressing the social and emotional needs of their team members. For instance, a study by Misumi (2020) found that leaders who effectively balanced both performance and maintenance functions were more successful in achieving project goals and maintaining high levels of team satisfaction in not-for-profit settings. This suggests that the PM Theory can be particularly useful in understanding how leadership behaviours can be optimized to improve project outcomes in the Kenya Scouts Association. A study conducted by Chen and Tjosvold (2021) on leadership in non-profit organizations in Asia demonstrated that leaders who exhibited both strong performance and maintenance behaviours were able to enhance team collaboration and improve project performance. This finding was significant for the Kenya Scouts Association, where leadership styles that prioritized both achieving organizational objectives and maintaining team cohesion could lead to better project outcomes. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 29 Additionally, the PM Theory’s adaptability to different cultural contexts, including those with collectivist values like Kenya, further underscored its applicability. The theory's balanced approach resonated with the cultural emphasis on community and teamwork found in many African cultures, making it a valuable framework for analyzing leadership effectiveness in the Kenya Scouts Association. Figure 1: below represents a diagrammatical representation of the theoretical framework. Figure 1: Theoretical Framework diagram Source: Author (2024) General Literature Review This section covers leadership styles and their effect on project performance in Kenyan NFPs. Not-for-Profit Organizations (NFPs) Not-for-Profit organizations (NFPs) are organizations that operate for purposes other than generating profit, focusing instead on social, educational, or charitable goals (Worth, 2020). NFPs constitute a significant portion of the economies Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 30 of both developed and developing nations. NFPS participate in a myriad of socio- economic initiatives that impact all aspects of life, nevertheless, they face a myriad leadership challenges that hinder their ability to realize their vision and, consequently, prevent them from taking on a vital leadership mantle in offering diverse programmes to the impoverished in society (Glaeser, 2019). Since they are the ones who give a company's expansion life, managers and the people under their supervision are its pilots. Leadership continues to be crucial for accomplishing the stated aims because they are such a significant factor. To increase business efficiency and avoid organisational failure and success, all levels of leadership are essential (Daniel, 2020). NFPs encounter numerous challenges in their efforts to expand the reach of their programmes. Some key instances include the increasing demand from funders for transparency and returns on their investments, customers seeking reliable and sustainable programs, communities expecting meaningful contributions to social impact, and rising opposition to pro-poor policies. Proponents of strategic leadership concluded that for today's business leaders to effectively navigate the leadership and management challenges presented by hyper- turbulent environments, they need to possess strategic leadership skills, in response to the issues faced by NFPs (Daniel, 2020). Leadership Styles There are several leadership styles that leaders may adopt, and which may have influences on the performance of projects. According to Khan and Adnan (2014) majority of managers use leadership styles that contribute to underperformance, thus contributing to poor project management practices that lead to poorly executed projects. Some of the leadership styles as identified by Iqbal et al. (2015) include Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 31 transactional, laissez-faire, authoritarian, democratic and transformational leadership styles while highlighting participative, autocratic, and democratic leadership styles. Modern leadership styles comprise of transformational, transactional, charismatic, visionary, and culture-based leadership style. This study employed six leadership styles, transformational, transactional, bureaucratic, democratic, autocratic and servant as the drivers of project performance. The rationale for settling on these six leadership styles is that they are some of the most practiced leadership styles around the globe (Khan et al., 2015; Murari, 2011; Northouse, 2018). As such carrying out a study on them may improve ideologies on these leadership styles further and lead to reduced research gap. Transformational Leadership In 1978, James Macgregor Burns used the term "transformational leadership" to refer to a process wherein leaders and followers assist one another in reaching new heights of motivation and morale (Lussier & Achua, 2009). Bass (1985) developed four attributes of transformational: idealized influence whereby leaders act in ways allowing them to serve as role models; inspirational motivation whereby leaders act in ways that will motivate and influence their followers; individualized consideration whereby leaders act as coach or mentor and develop the followers to their maximum; and intellectual stimulation whereby leaders encourage followers’ efforts and encourage their creativity. Yukl (2013) opined that transformational describes how effective leaders inspire and transform followers by appealing to their principles and emotions. Barth-Farkas and Vera (2014) added that transformational leaders create a vision for their followers impart inspiration and motivation; are exceptional mentors to their followers who mimic their actions and also inspire them through instilling self-efficacy. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 32 Several researchers have lauded transformational leadership style as one of the most effective leadership styles with positive outcomes. For instance, Northouse (2018) identified transformational leadership as one that placed considerable weight on the needs, principles and scruples of followers. According to Chan and Mak (2014) transformational leadership is viewed as a powerful and impactful style that shapes the behavior and performance of subordinates. Transformational leaders present a compelling vision for the future, motivating and inspiring team members by aligning their individual goals with project objectives, resulting in greater engagement and commitment (Bass & Riggio, 2006). They promote creativity and challenge the status quo, fostering an environment where innovative solutions are encouraged, which enhances problem-solving and project outcomes (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Additionally, transformational leaders provide personalized support and development opportunities, which boosts team members' skills and job satisfaction, contributing to improved project performance (Northouse, 2018). Transactional Leadership The transactional leadership style, based on the concept of an exchange relationship between leaders and followers (Burns, 1978), involves motivating employees through a reward system, focusing on organizational goals without engaging with their innovative qualities (Howell & Avolio, 1993). According to Bryant (2003) and Pretorius et al. (2018), the objectives of transactional leadership include collaborating on clear goals, rewarding achievements, and responding to employee interests during tasks. Kabeyi (2018) notes that transactional leaders can effectively motivate employees, benefiting the organization. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 33 Alavi et al. (2021) emphasize that the reward system in transactional leadership serves as a motivational factor, while set deadlines help mitigate risks of delays. However, challenges exist, such as stifling creativity, leaders avoiding responsibility for failures, and employees becoming unmotivated, focusing solely on avoiding punishment (Sultana et al., 2015). Studies by Judge and Piccolo (2004) indicate that while transactional leadership may not drive long-term change as effectively as transformational leadership, it is effective in achieving specific project objectives. Research by Lowe et al. (1996) supports the link between transactional leadership and performance outcomes in structured environments. Bureaucratic Leadership Style Founded by Max Weber, bureaucratic leadership style is considered by some scholars as the most effective form of management in organizations to acquire rationality as well as circumvent ambiguity (Ullah, 2021). Hall (1963) while citing Weber identified three highly interrelated characteristics of leadership which Weber considered as “ideal-type bureaucracy” and which included: the existence of a system characterized by division of labour, a well-defined hierarchy of authority, a set of detailed rules and regulations, and impersonal relationships. Bureaucratic leadership style has been lauded as having some positive characteristics such as efficiency since staff are required to complete their goals in little time and with little effort, division of labour which also enhances efficiency, performance-based promotion which may act as employee motivation (Damianus et al., 2021). On the other hand, bureaucratic leadership style has been viewed to curtail employees’ freedom, creativity, autonomy and overall wellbeing and is responsible for employee disempowerment, dissatisfaction and lack of happiness with studies indicating that it reduced the Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 34 efficiency and did not result in increased performance of the subordinates as well as the organization as a whole (Damianus et al., 2021; Mirayani et al., 2020). Democratic Leadership Style Iqbal et al. (2015) describe democratic leadership as characterized by an “I share” philosophy whereby each team member has equal involvement in the input and decisions are made within the teams. Some scholars have termed democratic leadership as the most effective leadership style with greater employee satisfaction (Bass, 1990; Lewin & White, 1939; Polston-Murdoch, 2013; Stogdill, 1974). This notion supports Northouse (2018), who emphasized that any leadership style capable of motivating employees is essential for achieving strong performance. However, other scholars described democratic leadership as having a time-consuming process in terms of decision-making due to the participative nature of the process which resulted in more time required to reach a consensus (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2003; Smith, 1998). According to Fatoni et al. (2020), democratic leadership style has the aptitude for not only poor execution but also a high poor decision-making potential. Autocratic Leadership Style Khan et al. (2015) defined autocratic leadership style as one where the manager made absolute decisions with no consideration placed on the views, observations, ideas and perceptions of the employees. According to De Hoogh et al., (2015) autocratic leadership style is one distinguished by absolute power and concentration of the decision-making process and which may have an undesirable effect on the performance of the team. Briker, Walter & Cole (2020) supported this argument and suggested that autocratic leadership style can lead to stress of the workplace and decreased employee welfare. Another scholar Kibbe (2019) argued that autocratic leaders use authority to assume control of the team and compels them Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 35 to conform to his commands. Nevertheless, autocratic leadership style also has some favourable elements. Khan et al. (2015) highlighted discipline, operational program, assurance provided by the rules and a decent control and overview of the state of the organization’s state of affairs as some of the advantages of the leadership style. İnandi et al. (2016) argued that autocratic leadership increased performance levels in the short run. Servant Leadership Servant leadership, a philosophy where leaders prioritize serving their teams, is particularly relevant for not-for-profit organizations (NFPs) like the Kenya Scouts Association (KSA). Introduced by Robert Greenleaf in 1970, servant leadership emphasizes fulfilling the needs of others to achieve organizational goals. In NFPs, which focus on community service and societal betterment, this leadership style is crucial for fostering support, collaboration, and shared purpose (Greenleaf, 1970). Leaders must empower and uplift their teams, especially volunteers, considering their well-being alongside organizational goals. This approach promotes inclusivity and aligns personal values with the organization's mission, improving project performance (Russell & Stone, 2002). A key benefit of servant leadership in not-for-profits (NFPs) is its ability to enhance volunteer motivation and retention, which are crucial for project success. Van Dierendonck (2011) highlights that servant leadership boosts engagement by creating a sense of belonging and fulfillment among volunteers, who typically lack financial incentives. This approach makes volunteers feel valued, leading to increased commitment and morale. In the Kenya Scouts Association, where volunteerism is essential for community projects, servant leadership can enhance dedication to Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 36 objectives and strengthen collaboration, resulting in improved project outcomes (Eva, 2019). Additionally, servant leadership contributes to the long-term sustainability of NFP projects by emphasizing team development and fostering a culture of continuous learning and innovation. This helps organizations like KSA adapt to challenges such as resource constraints and changing community needs (Lichtenstein et al., 2022). The style prioritizes ethical decision-making and responsibility, ensuring projects align with the organization's mission while addressing stakeholder needs (Laub, 2004). Ultimately, servant leadership cultivates resilient teams capable of maintaining project momentum and achieving lasting impact. Project Performance This study used the iron triangle components of cost, schedule, and scope as a measurement criterion for project performance. Project Cost Project cost is the total amount needed to complete a project, including all direct and indirect expenses like labor, materials, equipment, and overheads. Effective management of these costs involves estimating, budgeting, and controlling them to stay within the project's budget, if costs are well-controlled, the project is more likely to stay on schedule and within scope, which enhances overall performance; conversely, poor cost management can lead to budget overruns, delays, and reduced quality, negatively affecting project outcomes, PMI (2021). According to Aničić and Aničić (2019) project cost management is essential for completing a project within its budget. It involves estimating costs, setting a budget, controlling and monitoring expenses, and reporting financial status to ensure the project stays on track financially. According to PMI (2018), cost is a critical factor Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 37 in projects and is often regarded as one of the key indicators of project success. Given this importance, it is essential to implement an effective cost management system to ensure project goals are achieved within budget. Project Scope Project scope encompasses all the work required to produce a project's deliverables, including the tasks, activities, methodologies, and procedures involved (Kerzner, 2019; Schwalbe, 2014). It defines the boundaries of the project by identifying what is included and what is excluded, ensuring a clear understanding of the project's goals and the means to achieve them (Kerzner, 2019). Project Scope Management involves the processes necessary to ensure that a project includes all required work—and only that work—for successful completion. Its main focus is on defining and controlling the project’s boundaries. Poor scope management is a common cause of project failure, often stemming from insufficient time spent on defining the project scope, lack of stakeholder consensus, or inadequate control over scope changes. This can lead to unauthorized work being added, known as scope creep (Romel & Gilberto, 2016). Scope creep refers to uncontrolled changes in a project's scope, resulting in additional tasks beyond the original plan, which can increase costs and cause delays. Effective scope change management aims to protect the approved Project Contract and Project Logical Framework (Logframe). The Project Contract outlines the overall project scope, while the Logframe connects inputs, processes, outputs, outcomes, and objectives. Changes are often unavoidable during a project's lifecycle (Hazar, 2014), such as beneficiaries requesting additional deliverables that invalidate initial budget and timeline estimates. If a donor approves these changes, the project manager must adjust the budget and timeline accordingly, establishing new approved targets. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 38 All scope changes require approval from management and the donor, which is a crucial aspect of scope management. The goal is not to eliminate changes but to ensure they align with the project's objectives, have stakeholder agreement, and receive formal approval. In development projects, changes are anticipated as new insights emerge, necessitating adjustments to the project's approach and plans (Romel & Gilberto, 2016). Project Schedule A Project Schedule is a detailed plan that outlines the timeline, specifies the start and end dates for each task, their sequence, and interdependencies for all project activities and milestones. The schedule acts as a roadmap for managing and tracking project progress to ensure timely completion of tasks and achievement of project goals, key components include a task list, duration estimates, start and end dates, dependencies, milestones, the critical path, a Gantt chart for visual representation, and resource allocation (Kerzner, 2019; PMI, 2021). Project time management begins during the initiation phase by identifying the required project duration and its milestones, followed by creating a detailed schedule during the planning phase (Hazar, 2014). Romel and Gilberto (2016) noted that delays in project deliveries, affecting nearly 47% of projects, are often caused by inadequate time management. These delays impact all stakeholders involved. However, the study also found that, despite poor time management, projects are more likely to be completed on time, within budget, and scope if greater effort is dedicated to planning and control. Government Policies In Kenya, government regulations and policies significantly impact the operations and project objectives of not-for-profit organizations like the Kenya Scouts Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 39 Association. Policies concerning taxation, registration, and compliance with national development agendas can either facilitate or hinder project execution. Muriithi and Crawford (2013) note that governmental regulations present both constraints and opportunities affecting project performance. Favorable policies can enhance resource allocation, increase government support, and improve the operational environment, thereby amplifying the positive effects of effective leadership on project outcomes. Government policies regarding funding and partnerships are vital for not-for- profit organizations, as many depend on government grants and collaborations for project financing. These policies shape the financial resources available for implementation, affecting the relationship between leadership style and project success. For instance, while transformational leadership can effectively utilize government partnerships, its success hinges on supportive policies. Research by Waweru and Omwenga (2015) shows that organizations with strong government ties tend to achieve better project outcomes due to enhanced resource access and favorable working conditionsMoreover, government policies that emphasize education, youth development, and civic engagement—key focus areas for the Kenya Scouts Association—play a significant role in shaping the impact of leadership styles on project performance. Supportive policies in these areas foster an environment conducive to the association's growth. The government's focus on youth development in national strategies, such as Kenya’s Vision 2030, highlights the alignment between national objectives and the association’s projects, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of leadership strategies and increasing the likelihood of project success (Republic of Kenya, 2007). Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 40 Empirical Literature Review Lee and Chen (2020) conducted a study titled “Transformational Leadership and Innovation in Non-Profit Organizations: The Mediating Role of Knowledge Sharing”, which examined how transformational leadership impacts innovation within non-profits, with knowledge sharing as a mediating factor. The survey of 280 employees found a positive relationship between transformational leadership and innovation (β = 0.47, p < 0.01), and knowledge sharing partially mediated this effect (β = 0.32, p < 0.01), leading to a total effect of β = 0.62. Control variables like organizational size and employee experience had no significant impact, underscoring the importance of leadership and knowledge sharing in driving innovation. The study highlighted transformational leaders' role in fostering environments that encourage knowledge exchange and innovative practices. However, it focused primarily on for-profit organizations, where success metrics were financial, such as productivity and profitability. This approach left a research gap regarding how transformational leadership affects project performance in non-profit organizations, where success is typically defined by non-financial outcomes like volunteer engagement, program success, and community impact. This gap creates an opportunity for further research to explore the influence of transformational leadership on project outcomes in non-profits. Ali and Sundarakani (2020) explored the impact of transformational leadership on employee performance and organizational commitment in non-profit organizations, with job satisfaction acting as a mediator. The study, involving 310 employees, found strong positive relationships between transformational leadership and both employee performance (β = 0.53) and organizational commitment (β = 0.48). Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 41 Job satisfaction partially mediated these effects, improving performance and commitment. The research gap lies in the different focus areas. While the study concentrated on employee-level outcomes like performance and commitment, mediated by job satisfaction, and exclusively studied transformational leadership. In contrast, the current study which bridged the research gap and examined how various leadership styles affected project performance, a broader organizational outcome, without emphasizing mediators like job satisfaction. The study did not address how leadership styles influence project performance in the non-profit sector, where success is measured by more than just financial or operational efficiency, in addition, the study only focused on transformational leadership style. This current research also explored five other styles in addition to transformational leadership. Rodriguez and Walters (2020) carried out a study on “Transactional Leadership and Project Success: Evidence from the Non-Profit Sector", revealing that effective transactional leadership significantly enhances project outcomes, with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.65 (p < 0.01). Their study involved 120 project managers and highlighted that goal clarity serves as a critical moderator; the effectiveness of transactional leadership increases when project goals are clearly defined, resulting in a stronger correlation of r = 0.72 (p < 0.01). These findings underscore the importance of both transactional leadership behaviours and clear goal setting in driving project success in the non-profit sector. However, the study also noted that while transactional leadership ensures operational efficiency, it may not significantly enhance employee satisfaction or long-term commitment. The study only focussed on transactional leadership within the confines of the United States of America and lacked focused research specifically on the Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 42 influence of leadership styles on project performance within non-profit organizations in Kenya, a gap which was covered by the current study by including several other leadership styles and their effect on project performance in the geographical confines in Kenya. Mithamo and Chowdhuri's (2022) study, titled “The Effect of Project Management Leadership on Performance of Construction Projects in Thika, Kiambu County, Kenya,” investigated how different project management leadership styles influence construction project performance. The study surveyed 150 project managers and team members across 30 construction companies. Key findings revealed that transformational leadership had the strongest positive impact on project performance (β = 0.62, p < 0.01), followed by participative leadership (β = 0.51, p < 0.01) and transactional leadership (β = 0.38, p < 0.05). Approximately 75% of respondents indicated that effective leadership significantly enhanced project delivery times, quality, and stakeholder satisfaction. The stu