A PHENOMENOLOGICAL ENQUIRY ON JOURNALISTIC EXPERIENCES AND STRUCTURAL INFLUENCES IN THE COVERAGE OF TERRORISM IN KENYA Benjamin Muindi Mutie A dissertation presented to the School of Communication of Daystar University Nairobi, Kenya In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Communication October 2021 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy APPROVAL A PHENOMENOLOGICAL ENQUIRY ON JOURNALISTIC EXPERIENCES AND STRUCTURAL INFLUENCES IN THE COVERAGE OF TERRORISM IN KENYA Benjamin Muindi Mutie 16-1671 In accordance with the Daystar University policies, this dissertation is accepted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree. Date: ________________________________ ___________________ Kioko Ireri, PhD, 1st Supervisor __________________________________ ____________________ Levi Obonyo, PhD, 2nd Supervisor __________________________________ _____________________ Levi Obonyo, PhD, Coordinator, PhD Communication __________________________________ _____________________ Levi Obonyo, PhD, Dean, School of Communication Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy Copyright©2021 Benjamin Muindi Mutie Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy DECLARATION A PHENOMENOLOGICAL ENQUIRY ON JOURNALISTIC EXPERIENCES AND STRUCTURAL INFLUENCES IN THE COVERAGE OF TERRORISM IN KENYA I declare that this dissertation is my original work and has not been submitted to any other college or university for academic credit. Signed: ____________________________ Date: _________________ Benjamin Muindi Mutie 16-1671 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge several good people who have been very supportive, kind- hearted and genuinely concerned about my progress in the PhD journey that started in August 2016. First, is the Dean of the School of Communication and my co-supervisor, Professor Levi Obonyo. Prof Obonyo has held my hand all through the coursework, the writing of comprehensive exams on to the most difficult, yet a very fulfilling part of the journey: writing this dissertation to completion. Allow me to thank you for the kindness and care that you demonstrated all along. You have been very patient with me, and I am grateful for the coffee sessions, lunch meetings and birthday gifts. Indeed, this is truly a very memorable phase of my life, and I am most delighted to have spent it in your tutelage. Special thanks go to Professor Rhonda Breit, who helped me conceptualise this project. While I had a broad sense of what I wanted to write the dissertation on, it is Professor Breit who helped me narrow down and sharpen the focus of the research. I am truly grateful for your dedication to this course, and your insightful guidance. Professor Breit opened the doors to the library at the Aga Khan University Graduate School of Media and Communications for me. I am deeply grateful for challenging me to grow intellectually and professionally. Professor Kioko Ireri, the lead supervisor has been very instrumental throughout this journey and indeed planted the seed of empirical research in my mind at the formative stages of the PhD, during the coursework in RES850, Advanced Research Methodology, as well as Seminar on Advanced Communication Theory, COM810. Sections of this project were developed during these seminars – both formally and informally. Thank you for carrying on with me to the completion of this project. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy All the professors who taught and graded my papers are deeply appreciated. They include Professor Murej Mak’Ochieng, who introduced me to the work of Anthony Giddens, and specifically, the ideas on structure and agency, and the interplay of both in what Giddens terms as Structuration. I am grateful to Dr. Erneo Nyamboga and Dr Jesica Kinya Mwithia, from who I learned a lot about qualitative research protocols, including the philosophy foundation of research and approaches in collecting, analysing, interpreting and presenting qualitative data, as well as the language of the interpretivist paradigm, that guided this research project. I am grateful to Professor Faith Nguru, Professor Rebecca Oladipo, Professor Abraham Waithima, Dr. Paul Mbutu, Dr. Fred Olwendo, Dr. Jane Awiti and Dr. Rahab Nyagah, for the commitment you demonstrated during the coursework, laying a good foundation for research in the various classes where we interacted. I am grateful to the members of my dissertation committee for their insightful guidance in shaping this work to what it is today. Many thanks go to the Daystar University Vice Chancellor, Professor Laban Ayiro, who often called me to his office to discuss this work, and specifically, the help in carving out the research objectives well. Professor George Nyabuga has been instrumental, providing constant feedback that improved both the depth and breadth of this work. Thank you Dr. Rosemary K’Owuo, Dr. Wilson Ugangu, Dr Beatrice Mbogoh, Dr Lydia Radoli and Prof Nancy Booker for your thoughtful feedback during the final defence of this work. It is your collective intellectual contribution that has guided this work to become what it is today. This project would not be complete without the help from the local and foreign journalists, who supplied the data and insights for answering the four research questions. Many thanks to my research assistants: Mr. James Nyoike and Moses Kilolo, both of USIU-Africa, Ms. Sheila Sayianka Memusi of Daystar University, Mr. Charles Kevin Mudavadi, formerly of USIU-Africa: this work would not be complete without his selfless dedication during the data collection, analysis Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy and the presentation. I wish to acknowledge the dedication of Ms. Dorcas Adamba and Ms. Jeniffer Mutie of Daystar University for helping in many ways during my Ph.D. studentship. Many thanks to these two scholars from the diaspora, who have supported me heartily during this process: Dr. David Cheruiyot (University of Groningen, The Netherlands) and Ms. Joy Kibarabara (Stockholm University, Sweden). Your generosity in sharing literature and ideas is praiseworthy. To the following colleagues in the Ph.D programme at Daystar University, I would like you to know that you are a family to me. Thank you Ms. Josephine Mule, Mr. Eric Kadenge, Mr. John-Bell Okoye, Ms. Betty Nguitu, Mr. Hesbon Ochieng, Ms. Anyasi Ashley, Ms. Sarah Ndonye, Mr. Daniel Mule, Mr. Harry Bett, Mr. Bora Innocent, Ms. Josephine Mikui, Dr. Britto John, Mr. Antoinette Bonita, Ms. Evonne Mwangale, Ms. Angela Kitonga, Ms. Ruth Owino, Dr. Yves Ndayikunda, Mr. Don Bosco Ochieng, Ms. Redemptor Atieno, Ms. Anne David, Ms. Christine Wandolo, Mr. Patrick Mulinge, Mr. John Obunga, Dr. Njoki Chege, Ms. Winnie Mbatha, Mr. Oby Obyerodhyambo, Ms. Ruth Musembi, Dr. Robert Aswani, Ms. Mercy Omoke, Dr. Daniel Mwaringa, Mr. Jacob Muia, Ms. Susan Mwangi, Ms. Ukaiko Ojiambo and Mr. Daniel Omondi. I would like to thank all scholars whose work I have cited in this dissertation. Finally, I am most grateful to the entire Daystar University family for enabling me to pursue doctoral studies, and especially the post-graduate board led by Sister Professor Agnes Lando, for stirring the research pot in the university. God bless you all richly! Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL .................................................................................................................. ii DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................viii LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .................................................... xii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ xiv DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. xv CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ..................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background to the Study ..................................................................................... 4 1.3 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................. 13 1.4 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................... 15 1.5 Objectives of the Study ..................................................................................... 16 1.6 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 16 1.7 Justification for the Study ................................................................................. 17 1.8 Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 18 1.9 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................ 22 1.10 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study .................................................... 23 1.11 Definition of Terms ......................................................................................... 23 1.12 Summary ......................................................................................................... 25 CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 26 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 26 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 26 2.2 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................... 27 2.3 General Literature Review ................................................................................ 47 2.4 Empirical Literature Review ............................................................................. 68 2.5 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................... 94 2.6 Summary ........................................................................................................... 96 CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 97 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................................. 97 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 97 3.2 Philosophical Foundations Underpinning Current Research ............................ 98 3.3 The Phenomenological Approach ................................................................... 100 3.4 Sampling Framework ...................................................................................... 101 3.5 Data Collection Instruments ............................................................................ 103 3.6 Research Procedures ....................................................................................... 109 3.7 Pilot Study ....................................................................................................... 112 3.8 Data Analysis Plan .......................................................................................... 112 3.9 Tests of Validity and Reliability ..................................................................... 116 3.10 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................. 122 3.11 Summary ....................................................................................................... 123 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 124 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ....................... 124 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 124 4.2 Analysis and Interpretation ............................................................................. 125 4.3 Summary of Key findings ............................................................................... 183 4.4 Summary ......................................................................................................... 185 CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................... 186 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................... 186 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 186 5.2 Discussions of Key Findings ........................................................................... 186 5.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 232 5.4: Limitations of the Study ................................................................................. 232 5.5 Recommendations ........................................................................................... 234 5.6 Recommendations for Further Research ......................................................... 238 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 240 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 264 Appendix A: Interview guide ................................................................................ 264 Appendix B: Consent Form for Interviewees ....................................................... 266 Appendix C: Document Analysis Guide ............................................................... 269 Appendix E: Ethical Clearance ............................................................................. 270 Appendix F: Research Permit ............................................................................... 271 Appendix G: Researcher’s Curriculum Vitae ....................................................... 272 Appendix H: Plagiarism Report ............................................................................ 279 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1: Explanatory Powers of Hierarchy of Influences ...................................... 231 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: A Timeline of Some of the Notable Terror Attacks in Kenya ...................... 2 Figure 2.1: The “Hierarchy–of-Influences” Model .................................................... 47 Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................ 95 Figure 4.1: People Who Died during the Westgate Mall Attack in September 2013 141 Figure 4.2: Some Kenyan Journalists Embedded with KDF in Somalia ................... 142 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AP Administration Police AP Associated Press ATPU Anti-Terrorism Police Unit BAKE Bloggers Association of Kenya BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CAK Communications Authority of Kenya CID Criminal Investigations Department DCI Directorate of Criminal Investigations KDF Kenya Defence Forces DMI Directorate of Military Intelligence GSU General Service Unit IPOA Independent Policing Oversight Authority NCIC National Cohesion and Integration Commission NIS National Intelligence Service NSIS National Security Intelligence Service NPS National Police Service NPSC National Police Service Commission PDF Portable Document Format PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder RECCE Reconnaissance Company of GSU ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria ISIL Islamic State of Iraq and Libya (a reformation of ISIS) Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy NMG Nation Media Group RMS Royal Media Services SG Standard Group Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy ABSTRACT Since 2011, the impact and frequency of terrorism in Kenya have soared consistently. Consequently, terrorism reporting is today a major recurring news item in various media outlets. This research employed a phenomenological inquiry based on 28 in-depth interviews with journalists who have covered terrorism in Kenya between 2011 and 2019. Specifically, it first explored the lived experiences of journalists involved in this coverage and, secondly, examined the structures that influence their work when reporting on this beat. Third, it investigated ways in which structures influence the freedoms of journalists who have reported on terrorism. Last, the study explored the implications that the structural influences have on the journalistic freedoms of those covering the news topic. Within the context of lived experiences, findings indicate three major themes: fear of surveillance, the safety of journalists at risk, and nationalistic reportage. The fear of surveillance is characterized by worries about surveillance by state security agents and terrorists, while the safety of journalists at risk comprises psychological and physical safety. Nationalistic coverage is highly associated with Kenya-born reporters – an outright biased in favor of their nation. Legal and policy and organization structures influence those covering terrorism. The ways in which the structures influence journalistic freedoms comprise two themes: constraints in accessing information, resulting in journalists exploring alternative avenues for news; and the violation of tenets of professional journalism, such as impartiality, objectivity, and journalistic ethics. Under the fourth line of investigation, journalistic autonomy is the single major implication related to the coverage of terrorism, featuring low journalistic independence, self-censorship, and biased reporting. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy DEDICATION I dedicate this work to all the journalists across the world that risk it all when reporting about terrorism and related events. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy APPROVAL DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ABSTRACT DEDICATION