Upshot of Corporate Visibility on Agricultural Research Organisations Technologies a Study of International Centre Of Insect Physiology and Ecology (Icipe) and Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (Kalro) by Rachel Waithera Simon A thesis presented to the School of Communication of Daystar University Nairobi, Kenya In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in Communication October 2021 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy ii APPROVAL UPSHOT OF CORPORATE VISIBILITY ON AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS TECHNOLOGIES: A STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL CENTRE OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY (ICIPE) AND KENYA AGRICULTURAL AND LIVESTOCK RESEARCH ORGANISATION (KALRO) by Rachel Waithera Simon 10-0202 In accordance with Daystar University policies, this thesis is accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. Date: _______________________________ _____________________ Agnes Lucy Lando, PhD, 1st Supervisor ________________________________ _____________________ Nahashon Maina, MA, 2nd Supervisor ________________________________ _____________________ Kinya Mwithia, PhD, HoD, Strategic and Organizational Communication Department ________________________________ _____________________ Levi Obonyo, PhD, Dean, School of Communication Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy iii Copyright©2021 Rachel Waithera Simon Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy iv DECLARATION UPSHOT OF CORPORATE VISIBILITY ON AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS TECHNOLOGIES: A STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL CENTRE OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY (ICIPE) AND KENYA AGRICULTURAL AND LIVESTOCK RESEARCH ORGANISATION (KALRO) I declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been submitted to any other college or university for academic credit. Signed: _____________________________ Date: ___________________ Rachel Waithera Simon 10-0202 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I give my sincere gratitude to the Lord God Almighty for his grace. Indeed, this thesis journey was not easy, but His grace was sufficient. I would like to thank my husband, King Peter Gitaka Mbugua, who has been my greatest support system during the period of this study. I highly appreciate my supervisors, Sr. Prof. Agnes Lucy Lando and Mr. Nahashon Maina for their professional and moral assistance through the writing of this research project. I also thank ICIPE and KALRO, for allowing me to conduct the study using their organisations as the case study. Lastly, I sincerely acknowledge all the Ngewa Ward farmers who were the respondents of the study. They made the completion of this study a reality. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy vi TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL .................................................................................................................. ii DECLARATION ........................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... ii LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...................................................... ii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................... ii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 2 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ..................................... 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2 Background to the Study ........................................................................................... 2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................... 2 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................. 2 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................. 2 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 2 Justification for the Study ......................................................................................... 2 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 2 Assumptions of the Study ......................................................................................... 2 Scope of the Study .................................................................................................... 2 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study .............................................................. 2 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................... 2 Summary ................................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................. 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................. 2 General Literature Review ........................................................................................ 2 Empirical Literature Review ..................................................................................... 2 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 2 Summary ................................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................... 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................................... 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 2 Population ................................................................................................................. 2 Target Population ...................................................................................................... 2 Sample Size ............................................................................................................... 2 Sampling Techniques ................................................................................................ 2 Data Collection Instruments ...................................................................................... 2 Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................................... 2 Pretesting ................................................................................................................... 2 Data Analysis Plan .................................................................................................... 2 Ethical Considerations .............................................................................................. 2 Summary ................................................................................................................... 2 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy vii CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................... 2 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ........................... 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2 Analysis and Interpretation ....................................................................................... 2 Summary of Key Findings ........................................................................................ 2 Summary ................................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................... 2 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2 Discussions of Key Findings ..................................................................................... 2 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 2 Recommendations for Further Research ................................................................... 2 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 2 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 2 Appendix A: Questionnaire for Famers .................................................................... 2 Appendix B: Focus Group Discussion Guide for Farmers ....................................... 2 Appendix C: Map of Githunguri Constituency ......................................................... 2 Appendix D: Ethical Clearance ................................................................................. 2 Appendix E: Research Permit ................................................................................... 2 Appendix F: KARLO Research Approval ................................................................ 2 Appendix G: ICIPE Research Approval ................................................................... 2 Appendix H: Plagiarism Report ................................................................................ 2 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy viii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Visibility of KALRO and ICIPE Technologies ............................................. 2 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework .............................................................................. 2 Figure 4.1: Age of the Farmers ..................................................................................... 2 Figure 4.2: Gender of the Farmers................................................................................ 2 Figure 4.3: Level of Education of the Respondents ....................................................... 2 Figure 4.4: Knowledge about Existence of Research Organizations ............................ 2 Figure 4.5: Knowledge about Services Offered by the Research Organizations .......... 2 Figure 4.6: Organisation Farmers Depend on for Farm Improvement Knowledge ..... 2 Figure 4.7: Tools of Communication Used by the Research Organizations ................. 2 Figure 4.8: Tool of Communication Preference ............................................................ 2 Figure 4.9: Tools of Communication Effectiveness ....................................................... 2 Figure 4.10: Latest Adopted Technology....................................................................... 2 Figure 4.11: Tool of Communication Influence on Technology Adoption .................... 2 Figure 4.12: Message Content Persuasion in Technology Adoption ............................ 2 Figure 4.13: Recommendation to Adopt the Technology .............................................. 2 Figure 4.14: Role of Research Organizations in Increasing Food Production ............ 2 Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS BRI Biotechnology Research Institute CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIARD Coherence in Information for Agricultural Research for Development Dgroup Discussion Group FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ICIPE International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology ICT Information and Communication Technology JKUAT Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology KAINET Kenya Agricultural Information Network KALRO Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization KBC Kenya Broadcasting Corporation NARS National Agricultural Research System NERICA New Rice for Africa NGO Non-Governmental Organisation PSTAD Promotion of Science and Technology for Agricultural Development RAILS Regional Agricultural Information and Learning Systems SMS Short Message Service TV Television USAID United States of America International Development Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy xi ABSTRACT Visibility is a vital aspect of any corporate in the contemporary world as there is massive competition. Are the channels or tools used to communicate to the farmers on research discoveries effective? Do ICIPE and KALRO deliver the intended message at the right time, and is the understanding between the research institutions and the farmers at the same level? The study was undertaken to answer these questions. This research was informed by the media dependency theory, and data was collected using questionnaires and focus group discussions. The target population was farmers from Ngewa Ward in Githunguri Constituency, Kiambu County. A sample of 122 was selected through simple random sampling, and the collected data was analyzed with the aid of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings indicated that farmers obtained agricultural information mostly from radio, although some were dependent on other channels such as Television (TV), newspaper websites, social media, and friends. The tools used influenced the farmers in agricultural technology adoption choices. It was also revealed that though very few farmers knew of the existence of agricultural technologies provided by the research organizations, the farmers had a positive attitude towards technologies. They always looked forward to the innovation of new technologies and believed that technologies from the research organizations played a role in increasing food production. The study concluded that the two research organizations in Kenya (ICIPE and KALRO) used different tools of communication, with the most effective tool being the radio since it is affordable and easily portable. One of the study's recommendations is that the research organizations’ managements need to strengthen their communication departments to help assess appropriate and effective tools for use in communicating new technologies. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy xii DEDICATION I dedicate this study to our three sons: Kinglyron Mbugua Gitaka, Princelyron Mugi Gitaka, and Christyron Murathime Gitaka. The three were born during my prolonged duration of study. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Introduction Agriculture is one of the vital pillars and as well most important production sector of any nation’s economy. For years, there has been a significant change in the expectations of technology innovations and application. This emanates mostly from the need for increased productivity. Majorly, crop and livestock production generate viable, approachable, and dynamic agriculture that in turn contributes to the realization of the sustainable developmental goals. This study aimed at exploring the effects of corporate visibility on research organisations. The study focused on ICIPE and KALRO with the aim of establishing how the local and international agricultural organisations are faring in terms of visibility that is created through the adoption of their research technology by farmers. In chapter one, the background of the study, the statement of problem, as well as the research objectives have been laid out. The research questions, justification, and significance of the study as well as the rationale and the scope of the study have also been presented in this chapter. Background to the Study According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2011), research is not only meant to advance and endorse technologies to farmers but also enable them to increase production. This is aimed at responding to the changing circumstances and creating better understanding by farmers on technologies. Olufolaji (2008) stated that competitive agricultural exchange of both knowledge and products is viable in all markets. Successful transfer of agricultural Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 2 technology from an agricultural research organisation to farmers required visibility of the research organisations and use of relevant tools to communicate to farmers through relevant messages. Visibility of an organisation is key since it adds up to its image. But does visibility really matter to agricultural research organisations? According to Williams (2013), the more people know about the good work done by research organizations, the more support these research organizations will receive, and the more impact they can have. Visibility of an organisation is important as it informs about the worth of a company and the scope at which the audience can identify with its services. Many organizations in Kenya and abroad have espoused the concept of knowledge management as one that gives them a competitive edge over others. In this age, knowledge management has been perceived as the ultimate solution to most organizations’ competitiveness (Maingi, 2011). The visibility of an organization to its environ and the usage of its services could be the difference between its survival and collapse. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2007), because of the so-called “knowledge based economy”, the role of research centres is predominant. Research centres are crucial for they produce knowledge, which is an economic asset capable of sustainable growth and a decisive competitive advantage for businesses. In most third world countries, a lot of knowledge remained locked up and inaccessible to those who required it. Knowledge originality, whether from science, viable industrialists, or else farmer experiments is not exchanged. Efficiency of mechanisms set in place to exchange ideas determine the level at which national economies develop. Ideas are exchanged mostly among the multiple actors operational in the structure (Arnold & Bell, 2001). Most of the advanced governments Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 3 have continued to invest in the agricultural sector, with an aim to boost agricultural production. For example, in 2008, the Federal government of Nigeria spent approximately twenty-five billion naira on agricultural research and its advancement (Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators Initiative, 2010). According to Ayoola, Beintema, Flaherty, and Ogbodo (2010), academic and governmental agencies are also involved in agricultural research. Even though government and academic agencies are in agriculture, the division is yet to live up to projections in terms of alleviating poverty in society. One of the reasons said to be responsible for this was inadequate communication of agricultural research results. Meaningful relationships are brought about by interactions made through communication. Therefore, communication is important in every human society in creating meaning and understanding. Communication among professional groups, friends, and many others gives room for people to define their collective interest. This is in addition to defining identities and common goals. It is acknowledged that if two people or procedures are joined, they will affect each other, no wonder the axiom “two heads are better than one”. International agricultural research centers, together with Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) aim at addressing important production constraints. The extent to which International Research Centers are able to respond to the changing circumstances of the farmers determine their visibility and future relevance among the farmers (Van Mele, Zakaria, Begum, Rashid, & Magor, 2007). Not long ago, the World Bank came up with a way to allocate resources to specific CGIAR Centers. This was done with engagement of more emphasis on outcomes than on yields. This contributed to orienting the centers towards working more in an innovation system mode, whereby uptake and partnerships had to be Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 4 thought through precisely from the beginning of the invention development rather than at the end. According to Farrington and Nelson (1994), many of those involved in agricultural development or in this case researchers were secluded from the extensive experiences of others. There was seclusion of these researchers from all sectors be it on a farm, or in a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) office. This also included international agricultural research organisations and government ministry as well as aid organisations; thus, influences information flow. Information flow tends to be confined and restricted to single disciplines. In addition, information flow restriction is felt geographically as well as in prevailing organisational influence on farmers. This therefore limited the visibility of the agricultural organisations to the farmers. Visibility has been an issue that involves various processes. It encompasses the flow of technological information (Montgomery, 2002). Visibility dictates that there should be supply chain administration point of view since it sustains, accelerates, or enables sharing of relevant data with key clients (Holcomb, Manrodt, & Montgomery, 2001). The authors further noted that supply chain administration helps in removing incompetence and improving inventory as well as order management that deters agricultural research organizations from being visible to their primary audiences. Ideally, visibility enables all primary audience of agricultural research organizations to have timely access to all members’ roles. Visibility has two approaches, namely tactical and strategic perspective. The tactical perspective focuses on transactions as it offers visibility to the flow of materials, available capacity and resources within the organization as well have the means to communicate to their audience effectively. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 5 Overall, the motivation for this study was from the need to expand the visibility of both local and international research agricultural organizations in terms of communicating their innovative technology to the farmers. The aim was to increase understanding of the visibility attained using appropriate communication tools. Information is about transaction associated scheduling and execution of issues on one hand and around strategy-oriented issues where choices are made about communication structure of the income network on the other (Swaminathan & Tayur, 2003). Thus, it was significant for the research organizations to have effective communication tools. This will help farmers to recognize the technological opportunities developed by researchers. International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) Profile International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology is an international research institution working primarily on arthropods. Its mission is to help alleviate poverty as well as ensure food security. This is in addition to improving the overall health status of people in the tropics. Through developing and extending management tools and strategies for harmful and useful arthropods on one hand and while preserving the natural resource base through research and capacity building on the other (ICIPE, 2019). The Centre's vision is to pioneer global science in entomology and improve the wellbeing and resilience of people. It is also involved in cultivating the environment to the challenges of a changing world. This is done through innovative and practical research beside deep exploratory study. Cultivation is also done through influence assessment, evaluation, and sustainable capacity building. The institution is committed to developing and disseminating environmentally safe and affordable strategies of controlling insects. The institution does this by ensuring that there are Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 6 acceptable and accessible strategies to control insect pests and disease vectors. This institutions’ mandate further extends to the sustainable conservation and utilization of Africa’s rich biodiversity. The research tested the effectiveness of use of the climate smart push-pull technology which is one of ICIPE’s cropping strategies to control both stem borers and striga (a genus of parasitic kind of plants that occur naturally in parts of Africa, Australia, and Asia) weed in drier agro-ecologies. Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO) Profile Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation is a national research organisation mandated to endorse, streamline, manage, and regulate all aspects of research in agriculture and livestock development. This is in addition to promoting the application of the research findings and technologies in Kenya. It is responsible of expediting equitable access to research information, resources and technology and promote the application of research findings and technology in agriculture sector. The institutions’ mission is to generate and promote knowledge, technologies, and innovations for sustainability of farming in general, but particularly the agriculture and livestock sector for the wellbeing of Kenyans (KALRO, 2019). Since KALRO has many institutes, this research was founded on Biotechnology Research Institute (BRI) that is mandated to undertake research that generates and promotes agricultural biotechnology, knowledge, information and technologies that respond to farmers' demands and opportunities. Specifically, it focused on one of the institute’s objective which is to enhance availability of knowledge, information, and technologies on agricultural biotechnology invention value chain research. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 7 Statement of the Problem The Kenyan Government has identified key priorities for the research sector according to vision 2030 report. The key priorities are set out as a framework of Vision 2030 and as strategic issues that would drive the country towards achievement of national and global competitiveness (Government of Kenya, 2008). The researcher assessed the communication approaches used by agricultural research organisations to communicate to farmers. According to Akshaya and Vijayakumar (2017), poor communication of the technologies by the research organisations to farmers meant poor terms in setting of the research for development. This leads to failure of research findings reaching the needful farmers as well as failure of research to address current and emerging challenges in the agricultural sector. Bearing in mind the drought that occasionally affects Kenya yearly resulting in hunger despite the availability of research organisations that can offer help, there was therefore a need to assess how research organisations communicate new technologies to the farmers. If well utilized, the technologies help alleviate hunger. Visibility of the services that agricultural research organisations offer can also be increased through use of effective communication tools. Appropriate tools help communicate with farmers on the new technologies and how they can adopt them for increased food productivity (Akshaya & Vijayakumar, 2017). Therefore, use of appropriate tools by the research organisations to communicate translated to increase visibility to farmers on the services the research organisations offer. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to critically evaluate the visibility of ICIPE and KALRO as research organizations and deeply describe their message, communication technologies, and approaches, as well as the impact they have on farmers. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 8 Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study were as below: 1. Establish how tools used by research organizations to communicate to farmers on new technologies influence their adoption choices. 2. Assess the level of farmers awareness of research organizations’ technologies. 3. Examine farmers’ attitudes towards agricultural research organizations’ technologies. 4. Evaluate the persuasiveness of the message; ‘how to use a farm technology’ as used by research organizations’ to communicate to farmers. Research Questions This study sought to answer the following questions: 1. How influential were the tools research organizations used to communicate to farmers affected adoption choices of the new technologies? 2. What was the level of farmers’ awareness of research organizations technologies? 3. What was the farmers’ attitude towards agricultural research organizations’ technologies? 4. How persuasive was the message ‘how to use a farm technology’ as used by research organisations to communicate to farmers? Justification for the Study The researcher through the study intended to help agricultural research organisations understand the effectiveness of the tools used to communicate to farmers regarding their new technologies. This was to be achieved by shedding more light on the influence the organisations had on the farmers in terms of adoption of Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 9 their new technologies to improve farm productivity. Agricultural research organisations need to understand that communication is a powerful tool in achieving agricultural productivity. This made it necessary to study the role of communication, in the agriculture sector, on the new technologies and based on the use of research output. It has been said that most of the researchers limit the communication of research results to scientific forums, for example, journal publications and scientific conferences, rather than focussing on disseminating the output to the farming communities through the appropriate tools. This results in the challenge of bridging the gap between generations in the utilization of research information generated by research organisations due to the lack of appropriate communication tools. The study was meant to provide critical information to research agricultural organisations on the attitudes the farmers had towards the organisations and the adoption levels of new technologies. The knowledge was meant to equip the organisations with information and skills on how to use effective channels to communicate to farmers. Significance of the Study The study was significant in various ways. First, the agricultural research organizations’ effectiveness depends on its visibility to the farmers. Visibility is achieved through harnessing the appropriateness of communication tools used to disseminate adoption information of the newtechnologies to farmers. With the help of the reviewed literature, the study established approaches that had worked over time and those that had not worked regarding communication of technologies to farmers by the agricultural research organizations. This might be of help to the agricultural research organizations under study as it would be a way of learning how to improve Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 10 their communication strategies. This was eventually meant to help them improve their visibility to the farmers, therefore, helping farmers adopt their technology and increase food productivity. The study would also serve as a pointer to areas of weaknesses or strengths in the visibility of research organizations. The study was also meant to help measure the persuasiveness of messages used to communicate to farmers on the technologies. It was hoped that the study would be of help in communication material development to achieve better means of communication by the agricultural research organizations. From the evaluation, the organizations would be able to modify the means of communication or come up with new ones. The researcher, through the study, aimed to help the communication departments of the agricultural research organizations in the study by helping them realize the importance of using the appropriate tools to communicate to farmers. Such information would assist in choosing the right means of communication whenever they wanted to communicate to farmers. Assumptions of the Study The study assumed the following: 1. Research organizations had communication departments concerned with communicating about new research technologies to the audiences, especially the farmers. 2. Lack of visibility by agricultural research organizations’ technologies caused farmers not to benefit from their services due to lack of awareness of the same. 3. Farmers’ attitude towards research organizations’ technologies influenced the farmers’ adoption of the new technologies. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 11 Scope of the Study The study site was Githunguri Constituency in Kiambu County. The principal focus of the study was to explore technologies and knowledge sharing practices, used by ICIPE and Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KARLO). This is in addition to assessing technologies and knowledge shaping practices effectiveness regarding being adopted by farmers and their contribution to increase in food productivity. Limitations and Delimitations of the Study The study’s focus on Githunguri Constituency farmers in Kiambu County was perceived to reduce the generalizability of the findings to the wider Kenyan farmers’ experience with the research organizations. However, Githunguri Constituency served the purpose of the study as it formed part of environs of ICIPE and KALRO, and the study sought to find out whether these research organizations were visible to the farmers surrounding them. Additionally, Githunguri Constituency farmers were predominantly small-scale farmers, and thus the study was deemed limited in diversity. On the other hand, small-scale farmers played a significant role in feeding their households, and this, therefore, explains why they were important to this study. Further, since farmers introduced directly to the new technologies by the research organizations were not necessarily included in the study, there was the possibility of limited knowledge about technologies by the farmers under study. The study focused on the famers that were under ICIPE’s and KALRO’s environs, therefore highlighting the need for the farmers to know about the technologies as they were affected by issues that would be resolved by the technologies that these research organizations invent. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 12 Definition of Terms In this study, the following generic and operational definitions were applied: Visibility: Worton (2016) defined visibility as the degree to which something was seen by the public. According to this study, visibility meant a state of an agricultural research organisation’s services as known by the farmers. Corporate visibility: Fombrun and Riel (2002) termed corporate visibility as how visible companies are to consumers. In this study, corporate visibility is the extent to which a research organisation technologies are known by the farmers. Agricultural research: According to Loebenstein and Thottappilly (2007), agricultural research refers to all investigative activity aimed at improving productivity and quality of crops. This is done through research organisations’ generic improvement or better plant protection or irrigation, storage methods, farm mechanization or efficient marketing as well as better management of resources. Arnon (2012) defined it as the application of ideologies of basic sciences to seeking solutions to problems in a faster way or prospective giving usefulness to agriculture. In this study, agricultural research refers to research activity undertaken by agricultural organisations with the aim of improving food productivity. Agricultural technologies: Challa (2013) defined agricultural technologies as all kinds of improved farm techniques or methods and practices that affect the growth of agricultural output. In this study, an agricultural technology refers to the use of new methods introduced by agricultural researchers to improve farm produce or output. Upshot: A change that is as a result of another cause (Verma, 1998). In this study, upshot meant the effects agricultural productivity due to the tools used to communicate to the farmers on the adoption of the new technologies. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 13 Summary This chapter has presented the main problem of the study and discussed the study background. The chapter has also presented the rationale, purpose, and objectives of the study. Equally, the research questions have been outlined in this chapter. This chapter has further explained the significance of the study and outlined its assumptions, scope, limitations, and delimitations. Chapter two presents the literature review detailing aspects of visibility; communication to audience and efforts made to communicate to farmers in Kenya. The chapter as well covers the theoretical framework used in the study. Further, it explains the conceptual framework that guided the study. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 14 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This chapter discusses the literature that is related to the objectives of the study and also describes the theoretical framework that informed the study. The literature delves into various aspects of visibility, communication, and efforts made to communicate to farmers in Kenya. The theoretical framework explains the media dependency theory that guided the study. The chapter further presents and describes the conceptual framework of the study. Theoretical Framework Media Dependency Theory Media dependency theory was proposed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976), and it formed the basis of the study. The theory states that consumer behaviour is related to exposure to mass media. There is a great relation between media, its audience, and the surroundings, so the audience learning from real life is limited. There is so much reliance on media to get information and to realize audience wants. According to Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976), media dependence theory analyzes the critical areas of relationships between audience, media, and society and focuses on the level of dependence of mass media to inform. The theory details that the audience depends on media for information. This is because dependence is an important aspect in understanding media alterations of messages to mean something different to the audience. As society grows and becomes more complex, the dependency on mass media for “unique information functions” increases (Ball- Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 15 The theory was first used in a study conducted in the Brazilian city of Belo Horizonte in an economic model to explain the underdevelopment process in the Third World (Cardoso & Falleto, 1979). In 1962, Brazil paid $18 billion in interest on its external debt. In 1968 the same country did not have enough resources to pay the $12 billion due on its $103 billion external debt (Frank, 1969). Third World deficit gradually reduced most of the planet to unacceptable levels of poverty (Frank, 1969). Dependency researchers suggest the existence of two major agents in the global economic system; core and periphery. The industrialized nations (core) export finished goods to the Third World (periphery), which in most cases supplies the necessary raw materials for global consumption. The basic mechanism of the system was the process by which the core extracted surplus value from the periphery, maintaining the laurel in a state of underdevelopment. As prices for raw materials deteriorated in the world market and the relative value of high technology became dearer, the gap between core and periphery widened. The general effect was the creation of wealth in the core and poverty in the periphery (Frank, 1969). Massive advertising campaigns strengthened dependency. This is because they promoted the consumption of luxury items (Herman & Mosco, 1981). The power of multinational corporations was expanded through advertising, which stimulated economic and cultural reliance (Janus, 1981). According to Janus (1981), the consumer patterns of industrialized nations were projected inside the homes of underdeveloped regions showing a future dominated by Western technology. Relevance of the Theory to the Study The theory illuminated the study in the sense that there was a need to increase the visibility of the agricultural organisations to meet the farmers' needs in Kenya. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 16 Visibility, in this case, can be increased through media. Media must be relevant to the intended audience. According to Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976), an extensive use of media generates dependent relations in audience. The authors continued to highlight that media can create a dependence relationship with target audiences to achieve their goals by using their media power. Since the concerned organisations need to communicate the new technologies to the intended farmers, they need to build trust to ensure that the technologies are adopted. Bearing in mind the confusion that lock our social systems due to many trying to implement technology-based on other people’s influence, the proponents argue that media become more influential whenever there are major disruptions in the social world. When social change happens so quickly that the people, we normally turn to for advice do not understand what is happening, then we rely more on media for information. As we accept information from media, the potential for influence on our beliefs and opinions increases. Therefore, this theory was the most appropriate for this study. However, there are other theories that can apply to the study, such as diffusion of innovation theory. This theory focuses on technologies and their adoption as markers of modernity (Rogers, 2003). According to Rogers, the model of diffusion of innovations includes stages of social change ranging from knowledge acquisition, persuasion, reaching a decision, implementation of new innovations, and confirmation of use. The result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a social system, adopt a new idea, behaviour, or product. Adoption means that a person does something different from what they had previously. Rogers (2003) cited different strategies used to appeal to the different adopter categories when promoting an innovation. The first category is the innovators; they Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 17 want to be the first to try the innovation. They are very willing to take risks and are often the first to develop new ideas. Very little, if anything, needs to be done to appeal to this population (Rogers, 2003). The second category are referred to as early adopters; they represent opinion leaders. They enjoy leadership roles and embrace change opportunities. They are already aware of the need to change and so are very comfortable adopting new ideas. Strategies to appeal to this population include ‘how to manuals’ and information sheets on implementation. They do not need the information to convince them to change (Rogers, 2003). The third category is the early majority, who are rarely leaders but adopt new ideas before the average person. They typically need to see evidence that the innovation works before they are willing to adopt it (Rogers, 2003). The fourth category is called the late majority; they are skeptical of change and will only adopt an innovation after it has been tried by the majority. Strategies to appeal to this population include information on how many other people have tried the innovation and have adopted it successfully. Innovators in this final stage are referred to as laggards; they are bound by tradition and very conservative. They are very skeptical of change and are the hardest group to bring on board. Strategies to appeal to this population include statistics, fear appeals, and pressure from people in the other adopter groups (Rogers, 2003). Even though the diffusion of innovation theory focuses on adoption of technology and has been proved to work before in agricultural field, it did not fully illuminate with the study. The difference came because the study focused on the effectiveness of the communication tools or media channels as well as the messaging of the communication made to farmers by ICIPE and KALRO to persuade and influence them on the adoption of their new technologies. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 18 Another theory that applied in this study was constructivism learning theory. This theory has also been used previously in agriculture. It involves active learning to create own knowledge from experiences (Schunk, 2012). Learners use prior knowledge to assist them understands the new information they are receiving. Learners combine background knowledge and new information to improve knowledge and to make sense of the new concept. The theory states that learners interact with diverse sources of information to allow them to construct their own knowledge (Schunk, 2012). Constructivism learning theory has several principles. The first principle states that learning is an active process. According to Schunk (2012), learning involves language and action. Constructing meaning is mental, implying that practical experience is crucial for learning as well as activities that stimulate the mind. The other principle indicated that learning is a social activity. This means that learning is influenced by interacting communities. Learning is contextual; this mostly focuses on beliefs and background knowledge. Also, time plays a role here as it must be considered during learning. Another component of this theory is motivation. In learning something new, motivation assists in understanding. The theory encourages a participatory approach to learning through active involvement for knowledge enhancement (Schunk, 2012). Given that there are no communication tools used in helping the transfer of knowledge or learning in constructive learning theory, this disqualifies its relevance in this study. This, therefore, left the researcher with media dependency theory as the only most suitable in this study because, according to the theory; people depend on knowledge acquired through media to change. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 19 General Literature Review This section documents work that related to the study. The importance of organisations forming a positive corporate reputation has increased. Communicative efforts are significant in this case. This is because reputation is built on a perception of the organisations’ true character. Alexandra and Jean (2012) stated that achieving improved and sustainable agricultural production and productivity growth largely depends on the advancement of agricultural research and its effective applications by farmers in the farms through the transfer of technology and innovation. Alexandra and Jean continued to say that identifying the characteristics of agriculture in Africa does not explain why yields are low. They cited two broad problems. The first is lack of appropriate technology, and the second is lack of adoption. Aker (2010) argued that even if new and more productive technologies are available, farmers might lack information about their existence and knowledge about proper implementation techniques. According to Udry (2010), many agricultural technologies with demonstrated productivity gains such as efficient and timely fertilizer application, investments in improved seed varieties, and reduced tillage planting techniques have not been widely adopted in developing countries and in Sub-Saharan Africa (Duflo, Kremer, & Robinson, 2011). The 2008 World Development Report vividly documents that the associated costs, agricultural yields, and productivity have remained low and flat in sub-Saharan Africa over the last 40 years (World Bank, 2008). As cited by the World Bank, investing in new technologies is risky, and lack of reliable and persuasive sources of information about new technologies, their relevance to local agronomic conditions, and details on how to apply them, are potential deterrents to adoption. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 20 According to Birkhaeuser (1991), extension services have been used to diffuse new technology in developing countries since the Second World War. Extension services include related services, such as health and nutrition services. When they began, extension services mostly included education about new technologies, as well as input and credit provision. Benin, Nkonya, and Okecho (2009) highlighted that it is of essence that agricultural training and extension programs be intensive enough to promote adoption not only of improved yield-raising technologies, such as improved seeds but also of fertility restoring and conservation of technology synergies. Implementation of programs needs to be created between researchers and local communities that promote smallholder farmers’ adoption of technologies, which can increase agricultural productivity and reduce environmental degradation and the deterioration of soil quality (FAO, 2011). Situations have consequently arisen where the disseminated messages to most of the audience have become technically redundant and obsolete (Mkandawire, 1993). In sub-Saharan Africa, year after year technologies extension workers are hardly afforded in-service training and are loosely linked to research. This creates a situation whereby there is continued dissemination of the same messages repeatedly to the same audience (Mkandawire, 1993). Adoption of agricultural technology constraints includes lack of knowledge and ability to differentiate between various nutrient sources and lack of understanding of cost-effective methods of soil fertility management (Kamidi, Mwania, & Shiluli, 1989). Although low adoption rates might seem irrational when looking at promised yields, they may well be a result of rational decision-making by farmers, given the various constraints they face (Brooks, 2010). Technology adoption, in general, is positively related to a farmer’s schooling, wealth, and the adoption of the same Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 21 technology by neighbours, as well as communication made by research organisations (Foster & Rosenzweig, 2010). According to Age, Obienne, and Demenongu (2011), communication in technology adoption shape farmers’ attitude towards agricultural innovation. Further, Haug (1999) added that communications tools can help in improving farmers’ attitudes on technologies. Communication is a mutual understanding where participants exchange ideas, information and share meaning. Labarthe and Laurent (2013) stated that adoption requires the transfer of information to farmers through different communication channels. According to Aker (2011), communications tools most used currently are radio, television (TV), audio visual, and mobile phones. Ali and Kumar (2011) noted that knowledge and information on technologies assist farmers in making informed decisions about their farms. According to Asenso-Okyere and Mekonnen (2012), some of the potential Information and Communication Technology (ICT) ways to disseminate agricultural information to a wider population are mobile phones, innovative community radios, TV programs, video shows, farmers call centre and offline multimedia such as CDs. In his research, Aker (2011) assessed the ICT as a means used for communication of technologies in Africa. He noted that in 2008, there were 4 billion mobile phones worldwide and that out of those 374 million were in Africa with 60% in access of mobile phones. Aker also noted that mobile phones have the potential of reducing information costs for farmers and increasing geographical coverage. This increases farmers’ access to information on marker prices, climate change, transport, and agricultural techniques. The cost of sending Short Message Service (SMS) is cheaper than extension visits and the use of radio (Aker, 2011). Mobile banking such as M-PESA (Mobile Pesa) in Kenya and MAKWACHA (Malawian online free Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 22 classified platform) system in Malawi enable farmers to purchase farm inputs and receive payments on their mobile phones (Nyirenda, 2010). When it comes to communication through radio, Aker (2011) noted that over 55% in Africa listen to radio, hence, the use of this channel can play a crucial role in distributing agricultural technologies. A study conducted in Tanzania, Mali, Malawi, Ghana, South Africa, and Mozambique indicated that radios with creative programs such as drama were effective in disseminating agricultural information. The study also showed that farm radios were more effective when linked with other ICTs (Aker, 2011). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2010) made an approximation that increases in food production by 2050 might be at 91%. This is said to come from arable land productions enhanced by technologies. This is to be made possible by the availability of agricultural technologies and research applications to farmers via effective research communication means. More than half a billion of farmers that practice small-scale farming turn out to be the major producers of food in third world countries. Therefore, these farmers play a critical and major role in feeding families as they increase food productivity. However, they experience limitations when it comes to information about access to markets. They also lack knowledge of new inputs and emerging new technology as well as skills that are vital in creating farming opportunities that every farmer needs and look out for. Agriculture advancement has scaled up to an information-based entity with an increasing digital division among developed and developing nations. This is caused by challenges experienced because of bad leadership, governmental obligation, and limited investment in human capital, and financial support of agriculture advancement. The division is also caused by a lack of new ways to research new Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 23 technologies and communicate the same to farmers for increased production (FAO, 2010). Therefore, it is important to streamline Information Communication Technology (ICT) in all levels. Consideration in procedures, plans, power allocation, structures, and labour are also vital. This is to enhance generating of the new technology that is primary means of success in production. This, in turn, brings excellent influence on farmers’ improvements in the adoption of technologies (FAO, 2010). According to United States of America International Development (USAID, 2014), agricultural technologies play a vital role as they are able to improve the economy of any nation and enhance nutrition and food security globally. Tunde, Oluwole, and Yemi (2018) highlighted that there has been an assumption in the past that if technologies or practices are proved useful to farmers and meet pressing needs, then technology dissemination would occur naturally through peers, family, and members or farmer associations. Further, it is assumed that diffusion of information multiplies flawlessly from person to person, organization to organization, and country to country. However, Tunde et al. (2018) disagreed with this notion highlighting that most good requires scaled-up communication by committed individuals and organizations. The organisations must be willing to model strategies that are carefully custom-made for expansion. In addition, Grace et al. (2001) observed that the assumption highlighted by Tunde et al. (2018) forms the reason why scientists often face difficulty in going beyond testing technologies with small-scale farmers. This has also brought about difficulty in ensuring that researchers’ impacts farmers nationally and internationally through technology advancement (Tunde et al., 2018). Delivering advanced farm technologies to farmers is crucial. Nevertheless, their uptake is affected by existing Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 24 policies and traditional beliefs which limit distribution of agricultural technologies (Tunde et al., 2018). There is therefore a great need to improve communication of technologies in order to increase food production especially to the small-scale farmers to alleviate poverty (Linn, 2014). Waters-Bayer, van Veldhuizen, Wongtschowski, and Wettasinha (2009) cited that opportunities to present research innovations such as exhibition and conferences can encourage communication of technologies and increase the technologies experience to the farmers as intended. Farmer innovation exhibition fairs that bringing together different farming players create great opportunities for researchers to present new technologies to farmers. For future collaboration purposes the private sector should be ready to learn about farmer innovation processes and identify areas they can step in (Tunde et al., 2018). Events of this kind provide legitimacy to technological innovations presenting opportunities by putting technologies in public domain for public recognition (Wettasinha, Wongtschowski, & Waters-Bayer, 2006). In collaborations with the farmers’ awareness campaigns, invention of supply chain has an obligation to ensure technology advancement demonstrated alongside extension advisory resources (Tunde et al., 2018). According to Tunde et al. (2018), naturally, research is controlled by top-down approaches that often start with the strategic visions of future production systems. Apparently, knowledge-producing organizations are weak and stuck in mode one (Gibbons et al., 1994). Mode one science is suited in a way that transfer of technological research is passed on to extension agents who in turn communicate to the farmers for adoption. As stated by the USAID (2011), in assessing the appropriateness of new technology for farmers, other concerned partners need to consider other factors such Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 25 as technology adoption suitability. Tunde et al. (2018) cited that potential risk exposure is a key consideration as well as reliability of delivery institutions. Tunde et al. further noted that technologies introduction and promotion outweigh the risk. Among many benefits of a technology, there may be drawbacks such as dilapidation of the environment. According to Tunde et al. (2018), very useful new technologies fail to reach the intended farmers due to organizational and institutional shortcomings therefore limiting adoption. Approaches to agricultural research and extension have been unsuccessful in handling of low agricultural productivity causing small scale farmers lack partnerships with other agricultural players. This leads to end up making the farmers not motivated to produce more than they need for their continued existence (Tunde et al., 2018). Tunde et al. (2018) cited that for small scale farmers to adopt technologies, they need clear information about them and the opportunities they create. The authors continued to note that, in the contemporary world, ICT has ability to offer communication channels to small scale farmers if they are empowered. Belden, Donovan, McNamara, Kelly, and Pehu (2012) described ICT as devices, tools, or applications that help in sharing and recording of information through communication or programming. It is as well covers communication channels ranging from radio to internet and to mobile or telephones devices. Tunde et al. (2018) cited ICT affordability as the cause resulting in communication reaching rural farmers. Additionally, the use of ICT to exchange information and communication among dissimilar systems of audience can bring about increased exposure to the researchers. Eventually, this can bring about modification at the systems level of institutions (Tunde et al., 2018). Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 26 Farmers’ knowledge and perceptions when it comes to farming technologies are very diverse and dynamic, determining the necessity of coming up with technology in consideration to farmer’s needs. According to Bentley et al. (2007), demand and supply of farm technology are like two sides of unfolding conservation. Many technologies are knowledge-based, and whether participatory or not, they are unlikely to bring ‘out of this world’ developments. According to Bik and Goldstein (2013), researchers in various fields are taking advantage of social media tools and are integrating them into their work. One aspect of the research process that is benefiting a lot from social media is the communication of research results. Traditionally, researchers used to disseminate their research results using scientific journals, conferences, and posters. Social media is complementing these methods for communicating research. It is making it possible for researchers to communicate results directly to the public and other key stakeholders. In their research, Chisenga, Kedemi, and Sam (2013) argued that social media in research is a tool that is mainly used in the identification of research opportunities and finding collaborators for research projects. The greatest potential for social media is in the broadcasting of research findings. Their study showed that there is little use of new media in communication and publishing of research findings. In general, communication tools increase awareness and knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices and farmers’ attitudes. Sharing information and knowledge provides farmers with the information to improve crop productivity (Karami & Rezaei, 2008). Therefore, the researcher found it vital to assess the available infrastructure to implement appropriate communication tools for agriculture. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 27 Empirical Literature Review The discussion here involves review of previous agricultural related research citing communication to the farmers. As such, this section discusses how the communication to audiences has been made previously as well as the efforts made to communicate to farmers. Communicating to Audiences Mabe and Oladele (2012) stated that agricultural extension ties the gap between existing technology and farmers’ die-hard practices through the provision of technical advice, information, and training through the use of appropriate channels. Aker (2011) noted that the only challenging thing when it comes to communicating technologies to farmers is that they need information on a variety of issues at various stages of communication before adopting new agricultural technology. In addition, he notes that agricultural extension methods are created to curb information extension challenges farmers’ experience. This is done mostly to famers who have limited sources of information or none at all and particularly those with limited or no access to other sources of information. In Pakistan, a research was done by Annus, Khawar, Shahid, and Tahir (2007) to investigate the role of print media in communicating useful information to farmers. From the study, TV was highlighted as second most effective communication channel by farmers of Tando Allahyar of Hyderabad district. In this case, media was highlighted to have a role in communicating agricultural technologies as this role can make a great impact to the farmers (Khan, Muhammad, Chaudhary, & Khan, 2013). A study done by Chhachhar, Hassan, Omar, and Soomro (2012) found that use of TV among farmers was rampant. They noted that this can be made a valuable communication channel for agricultural technologies. On the same note, an Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 28 investigation done by Bhutto, Chandio, Khooharo, Memon, and Panhwar (2014) on the role of communication channels in Jaffarabad District of Baluchistan found TV to be an effective means of communication used by the farmers’ community. Mostly they used the channel to get the information used in solving agricultural problems. To build up on the above studies in Pakistan, another study was done by Umbreen (2017). The study established that TV and radio provided farmers with enough exposure to climate change and other farming practices. These channels, therefore, became a helping hand regarding addressing issues affecting agricultural productivity. However, she noted that the targeted audience only did understand and spoke Punjabi, yet agricultural communication programs broadcast was mostly in Urdu. Umbreen added that they also used terminologies and technical terms in English hence forcing the farmers to depend on other sources of information. They majorly turned to experiences of peers citing a language barrier. Umbreen (2017) continued to state that it is vital to come up with an all-inclusive media policy intended to cover only issues faced by farmers. She recommended that this can be ensured by considering challenges affecting farmers and the language that they prefer. This would, in turn, create visibility of technologies. Akshaya and Vijayakumar (2017) conducted a study in Kerala with the aim of identifying the role that communication channels play in the dissemination of agricultural technologies and information. The study established that most farmers considered the TV as the most appropriate tool of communication to them. They cited that TV disseminates current information pertaining to their needs. On the other hand, radio as a medium for agriculture was considered by older farmers who listen to it out of habit. Most younger farmers subscribe to agricultural magazines. Internet was used only by a handful of farmers in seeking agricultural information. Farmers felt that use Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 29 of the information disseminated by mass media had a positive influence on productivity. Akshaya and Vijayakumar recorded that farmers depend on traditional mass media and are less aware of agricultural support provided through new media, such as the internet. Akshaya and Vijayakumar (2017) continued to note that these media can have an impact in agriculture only if farmers know their availability, how to access them, and the reliability of information available through them. In 2017, Singh and Singh (2017) conducted a research in India, Rajgarh District. The research was to assess the utilization level of communication channels of wheat growers. This is in relation to the association between social participation of respondents and the utilization level of the communication channels available. TV was highlighted as the most utilized communication channel, followed by radio. The study also found that there was social participation of the respondent in relation to the utilization level of the communication channel in use. Saravanan (2010) noted that knowledge transfer of farm technologies should consider farmers’ points of view. The consideration should be with the aim of building on their knowledge to get the most out of it. Khan, Nasir, and Rahman (2017) conducted a study in Bangladesh to determine the effectiveness of selected channels of communication of agricultural technology transfer to farmers. The study identified various factors causing the effectiveness of communication channels in technology communication to farmers. The study established that the TV was the most popular and influential mode of communication in comparison to radio and all other periodicals. The outcome was based on farmers’ views towards these communication channels. Farmers’ education as well as transmission and use of the various modes of communication had positive significance. The effectiveness of mass media was identified in consideration of eight Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 30 characteristics. The regression analysis established that 39.3% of the entire difference in apparent effectiveness of communication channels was explicated by two variables. These variables are education and media. They were the identified persuasive means affecting the effectiveness of certain channels of communication (Khan et al., 2017). According to Tunde et al. (2018), outlining agricultural research and its achievements from the year 1990 to 2010 concluded that many researchers have developed new technologies in Africa. Most of the said technologies are developed by researchers from a CGIAR and their National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) associates. The adoption level increased due to the availability of technologies. The increase brought about economic benefits recorded to be about at 2.9 billion dollars (Alene et al., 2009). Additionally, enhanced assortments of cowpea that provide both human food and livestock feed is in the process of adoption with farmers from the dry savannah of West Africa, considering it viable technology. Southern Africa and parts of Eastern Africa recorded an increase in productivity after adopting the technology. This was settled at due to improved varieties of common type of beans that was adopted bringing about 50 percent of the total bean productivity increase, in a span of 15 years (CGIAR, 2011). In their research, Tunde et al. (2018) cited a good example of the use of ICT for disseminating technologies highlighting Promotion of Science and Technology for Agricultural Development (PSTAD) project, which built the capacity of NARS in knowledge management using ICTs. An African portal on Agricultural Information System (AIS), the Regional Agricultural Information and Learning Systems (RAILS) was established to link the target NARS to develop websites to enhance learning, information, and knowledge exchange among scientists and researchers. The links gave researchers and scientists a platform to engage and exchange ideas and resources Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 31 and thereby reduced duplication of efforts, saving time and making research efforts more meaningful and rewarding for the actors and African agriculture (Tunde et al., 2018). The authors further added that farmers organizations were also using the eRAILS portal to increase their visibility and share information related to their activities not only to the external world, but also to their members. The approach proved to be a good mechanism for disseminating information on available technologies and market information, which will subsequently result in the adoption of technologies. To enhance information sharing, Tunde et al. (2018) recommended the use of the discussion group (Dgroup) system. These systems are important platforms of sharing information as used in PSTAD project. They provide an opportunity for increasing the adoption of research technologies and all other agricultural research output. This was done to help extend the opportunity for knowledge communication and the trainings from all continental levels regarding PSTAD project. Steps were taken to assess online farmers using the Dgroup system. Discussion group is an online platform used as a channel to enable communication individuals and organizations in all agricultural sectors of life to come together and share their agriculture technology discoveries with others (Tunde et al., 2018). The essence of the Dgroups platforms is to help in improving communication and knowledge exchange. This was done amongst PSTAD researchers and all farm- related stakeholders from all over the world. Tunde et al. (2018) noted that the PSTAD project faced challenges and the insufficiently trained human resources were a hindrance to the success of this project. This effect was felt mostly when it comes to scaling up and adoption, as it was in the case of PSTAD project. Capacity building at every point is an important player Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 32 towards technology adoption and use as well as impact creation (Tunde et al., 2018). One of the learning experiences on this project was the necessity of capacity enhancement on concept among the project implementers, especially the task forces, collaborating institutions, and partners, as well as farmer organizations. This capacity- building reinforcement improves all systems ranging from leadership to communication to bargaining power. The consequence, farmers’ organizations in communities used the information accrued to register with local authorities (Tunde et al., 2018). Tunde et al. (2018) recommended that for great advancement in technology, new and existing workers require thorough training to successfully support continuing agricultural development. This is because the daily happening in up-and-coming organization comes with new challenges and experience. On one hand, farm extension agents when thoroughly trained can be effective in connecting farmers with researchers. On the other, other agricultural experts can be useful in assessing the success of farm experiments and their adoption to farmers. Binswanger and Nguyen (2005) highlighted how vital training of the extension workers is towards in the enhancement of technology adoption and to improve development programs to farmers. Binswanger and Aiyar (2003) pointed out the importance of producing periodicals in support of the application of development programs. Tunde et al. (2018) concluded by citing that technology adoption is key for increased production, therefore capacity building of stakeholders for enhancement and communication should be properly strategized. According to Mele (2007), many organizations screen out their technologies using equipment such as powered generator intending to reach many farmers at the same time. Also, locally available white cloth is used to make large screens that help Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 33 screen communication in organized shows in the evenings to reach large audiences. Most of screened communication takes place in markets or open places at shopping centers. This reduces the cost usually incurred by going public while communicating farm technologies (Bentley et al., 2003). Mgbakor, Iyobor, and Okezie (2013) conducted a study to investigate the socio-economic strands taken by communication channels on farmers in Ika North East Area of Delta State Nigeria. The study established that the major constraints affecting use of communication channels were lack of resources, language, and frequency variation. The purpose of the study was to assess the kind of services provided by extension workers to increase farm produce. About a hundred farmers were randomly chosen and interviewed. The findings also showed that visits of extension workers were committed to teaching farmers modern technologies in understanding of the usefulness of the innovations. A research was done by Mele (2007) in Bangladesh, Guinea Bissau, and Uganda. It was found that in Bangladesh, the Agricultural Advisory Society, a national small NGO in partnership with many local NGOs and community based organizations circulated recordings of videos to communities and to individuals with stall owners who organized approximately 8,600 shows in their shops premises with no charges. They were motivated by increased traffic in their businesses as they attended the shows. It was approximated that more than 157,000 farmers attended the shows in individual stalls and for at least 16 times they watched the recorded videos. The Bangladeshi national TV additionally continued broadcast the videos for free and it was estimated to reach over 40 million rural people. In Guinea Bissau, an NGO by the name Apek was involved in training of 6,500 farmers (Mele, 2007). The organization also trained staff of their grassroot Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 34 organizations through videos. The NGO combined their strategy by interviewing farmers using rural radio. The interview entailed what they had learnt after watching the videos during trainings. The 25-minute radio program broadcast twice every week in three months progressively and the strategy for estimated to be successful for reaching about 800,000 farmers (Mele, 2007). In Uganda, as noted by Mele (2007), mobile cinema approach was used in various camps. The approach deemed a success because an estimate of over 7,000 farmers was reached. These farmers who are part of upland rice cultivators had received seed of the New Rice for Africa (NERICA). In all these examples drawn from the above research by Mele shows one thing in common: local people appreciated the content of the videos and their relevance to farming. According to Seck, Diagne, and Bamba (2010), New Rice for Africa (NERICA), which combines the high yields of Asian rice with African rice’s resistance to local pests and diseases, has spread to about 250,000 hectares in upland areas. This has aided in decrease of national rice import bills and generated higher incomes in rural communities. Recent research has also begun to document nutritional benefits from improved crop varieties. In their research, Arimond et al. (2007) established that in Mozambique, the introduction of new orange-fleshed sweet potato significantly increased the intake of vitamin A among young children. McEwan (2009) stated that Dissemination of New Agricultural Technology in Africa project and Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato project, and a technology platforms known as Innovation Platforms for Technology Adoption were designed in African countries ranging from Ethiopia, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya. The Innovation Platforms for Technology Adoption created opportunities for stakeholders’ partnerships. This was with an aim to develop institutional mechanisms that promoted Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 35 advancement of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato technologies. These technologies included agronomic practices, post-harvest activities, and new varieties. Likewise, other commodities like sorghum, maize, and cassava were promoted in the West Africa sub-region through the strategic inventions and communication stages (Tunde et al., 2018). Built on the previous knowledge from Dissemination of New Agricultural Technology in Africa, Abdoulaye, Julienne, Sanyang, and Sibiri (2016) resolved that cassava and maize technologies without proper communication cannot result to any impact or bring change. The impact is a must for small scale farmers’ empowerment on agriculture and livelihoods, as the need of adoption rises and use by farmers to yield productivity just like any other technology. Appropriate communication tools to communicate to the farmers form a platform of scaling up the adoption of the technologies (Abdoulaye et al., 2016). Local agricultural group are a good platform for improving access agricultural information. Mukhtar and Ogunlela’s (2009) study in Nigeria showed that women organisations were trained in the use of information communication tools in rural areas. They introduced a weekly radio program where rural women shared information about their farming practices in their local language. Efforts Made to Communicate to Farmers in Kenya According to Herforth (2010), an NGO by the name Farm Concern International undertook an intervention targeting agri-based women on farming of traditional green vegetables in Kenya that are nutritious and create market for them. The project is recorded to have been effective. The project recorded an increase in consumption of the rich leafy vegetable, especially by farmers and their households. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 36 In 2012, Kenya Agricultural Information Network (KAINET) did a study on response to the increasing need of farmers in sharing of timely agricultural research outputs from researchers. Under KAINET platform, organisations were called upon to develop guidelines. The guidelines were to describe their information management in communication of research output and technologies sustainability and the positive impact. This was done in consolidating of agricultural communication resources to increase visibility of information available to the farmers nationally. The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (2009) repository contains 1500 meta-data records. Out of that, 750 of them are full text. Communications already incorporated were such as project reports and conference proceedings as well as annual reports. Others were monographs and journal articles. The respiratory also has 770 meta-data records. Out of this 350 are full text. At KARLO, approximately 40 documents are digitized. The organisation ensures that each month there are a good number of recordings entered to the repository. KARLO also has a digitization programme that includes the digitization of older documents. These are documents that for about 15 years were available only in print form. Most of research institutions such JKUAT as well as individual researchers collaborate with private as well as with other international organisations with the same interest. The stakeholders include farmers and researchers. Others are universities, NGOs and extension agents among others. To ensure effectiveness in communicating research findings to the various audiences and especially farmers, repackaging of discovery of research is deemed important. At KALRO, all the activities that deal with repackaging of information concerning farmer are managed by an Outreach, Packaging, and Transfer Division. These research information and communications are repackaged into periodicals, documentaries and videos Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 37 highlighting various agricultural new technologies. They are then communicated on national radio and TV stations such as Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC), KALRO, in collaboration with JKUAT and KBC broadcasts “Farmers Voice”, a radio program whereby the local language Kiswahili is used to enhance better understanding of the technology to the farmers. Recordings from TV documentaries on various farming programs are also stored in website and on YouTube. Storage of information in these platforms enhances wider audience, in addition to distribution of recorded CDs on agricultural technologies (CIARD, 2010). According to CIARD (2010), institutions that were part of this project reported that they experience visibility had increase both at local and international level. Enhanced visibility was due to their participation in the KAINET project that involved wider partnership with other likeminded organisations. The organisations also increased availability of information on websites that could easily increase traffic due to its accessibility by researchers in Kenya and other parts of the world. Increased of information content exchange was recorded between KAINET members. Other concerned institutions also increased awareness of other available research technologies. The KAINET project faced various challenges as the participating institutions such as Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KALRO) and JKUAT could not manage to digitize all their research outputs. This therefore limited the available information, accessible and applicable to their audiences who are farmers (KAINET, 2009). Up to today, the institutions in the discussed project still face limitations in storage capacity. They lack adequately trained staff and need apparatus for e- repositories administration. Members recorded inadequacy of capacities even though they were developed under KAINET. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 38 Kenya Agricultural Information Network provided trainings but the members’ record that there was not enough or depth in training. This was due to the short training period accorded each course. There was a limited number of people trained from each institution in participation. The digitization of programs implementation was eventually challenged because of high transfer and turnover rates of trained staff. This is in addition to the inability by the institutions themselves to fund digitization programs of their information resources. Inadequate of program recording capacity to manage institutional e-repository systems was recorded to be a major challenge in the success of this program. When it comes to equipment availability, most of the institutions hand no computers and heavy-duty scanners. Such machines are needed to work with heavy and bulky documents. The management of these institutions are said to be hand on in addressing the challenges faced in this project. The long procedures put up by Government procurement were recorded to have curtailed this project especially the public organisations (KAINET, 2009). According to CIARD (2010), most of the organisations involved in the KAINET project took about three years to get the relevant equipment. They also took so long to hire staff for the digitalization process. The institutions face challenges in repackaging research outputs even into simple formats for the farmers. This is caused by high costs of hiring personnel to translate the materials from English to the local languages. This is in addition of challenges that comes with the costs of paying for airtime and space in the local radio and TV programs and for newspapers adverts. According to a research done by Farrington and Nelson (1994), agricultural research institutions still face challenges in ICT infrastructure and capacity building. They also lack understanding in new information trends to effectively publishing their useful information online. Universities and researcher also need to be educated to Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 39 inform so that they can take a strong understanding of importance of communication using the right media in exchange of research communications. Speranza (2006) conducted a research that addressed the sustainability of famine management that Makueni County suffer ever year. The researcher noted that despite various commitments of the stakeholders, the development efforts failed. The failure was mostly felt in leading of drought management that is sustainable as well as the food security. The researcher went on and examined the project regarding improvement of drought management and sharing of information between the various stakeholders. The aim was reducing helplessness exposure to drought occurrences and food insecurity (Speranza, 2006). Exploring and authenticating farmers’ familiarity about drought in a thoughtful way helped. An explanation was reached on why research outputs and the communication of the technologies to farmers had little or no influence on in improving farming practices. The forecasts broadcast on various communication channel that accompanied regarding adaptation measures did not stop the choice of planting timings and drought-resistant crops. Majority of farmers did not borrow much from this communication. They went on and planted seeds believed to have been drought-tolerant than recommended ones (Kiteme, Speranza, & Wiesmann, 2008). Moreover, they upheld their stout confidence on their own know how regarding the best variety of seeds concerning drought occurrence and the equivalent mitigation tactics that enhance success in farming. The farmers justified their bold choices pointing out that in the past seasonal predictions on the communication channels had turned out to be erroneous (Speranza, 2006). In conclusion, all highlighted scenarios show that communication through the appropriate tools is important in creating visibility. This sums up the argument by Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 40 Oladimeji (2006) who stated that currently, knowledge regarding technologies is transformed and disseminated very quickly through different communication devices if used appropriately. The communication devices provide important information to communities, within seconds, and can be used to alert a community from upcoming events. He added that, media communication is important for rural community information dissemination, transforming knowledge and information about agriculture for agricultural development, agricultural production, and for improving the marketing and distribution of agricultural products (Oladimeji, 2006). Conceptual Framework This section covers the conceptual framework that was used in the study. The conceptual framework shows how agricultural research organisations use of appropriate tools of communication to communicate to farmers would lead to increased visibility of the organisations. Following the conceptual framework structure is a discussion that outlines dependent and independent variables and how they relate to the study. Figure 2.1 illustrates the conceptual framework of the study. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 41 Source: Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) Discussion The conceptual framework includes two types of variables, independent and dependent. Agricultural research organizations are dependent variables as they are dependent on media in communicating their technologies to farmers. Media therefore Agricultural research organisation (Both international and local) Media (Appropriate tools to reach the farmers)  Radio  Television  Newspaper  Website  Social media  Mobile calls &text messages Audience (Farmers) Effects (Increased visibility and adoption of technology) Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 42 becomes the independent variable. The effects are dependent variable as they are because of the adoption of technologies by farmers. On the other hand, media becomes a dependent variable due to the feedback received from farmers and research organization as a result of the effects. According to Holcomb et al. (2001), a firm with greater visibility enjoys organizational characteristics such as high reputation, status, and distinction that make the firm more extensively known in society. Therefore, the question would be, how effective are the tools used by research organization to communicate to farmers? Does the visibility affect the trust? This research delved to find out the solution to the miscommunication, if any, that was made through use of inappropriate tools. Summary Chapter two has delved into the literature review and the theoretical framework related to the study variables. This was categorized into the theoretical framework, review of general literature, empirical literature, and presentation of the conceptual framework. The next chapter delves into the research design and methodology that was used in the study. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 43 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter presents details of the research designs and methodology that was used to measure the effectiveness of the tools used by ICIPE and KALRO in communicating their new technologies to farmers. The discussion was meant to help the researcher understand the institutions’ visibility and the attitudes the farmers had towards their services as well as farmers’ adoption level of their new technologies. Research Design This study adopted an explorative research design as the study sought to compare the effectiveness of the tools used by ICIPE and KALRO to communicate to farmers on their new technologies. In addition, the study was to determine the nature of the problem caused by their ineffectiveness if any. The research was also to be undertaken to help assess the adoption level of the new technologies by farmers as introduced by research organisations. The underlying goal of this analysis was to search for similarity and variance. Spata (2003) stated that comparative research examines differences and similarities among the variables of the study. The study also sought to assess the awareness level that the farmers had on the research organisations’ technologies. Further, exploratory positions of the messages used to communicate to farmers by the research organisations were evaluated to determine whether they were persuasive or not. Farmers’ attitudes towards the agricultural research organisations were be assessed. Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 44 Population The population of the study was Kiambu County farmers as they were the closest farmers to ICIPE and KALRO operation areas. Much of the operation of ICIPE and KALRO happens at their headquarters in Duduville campus in Kasarani, Nairobi, and Thika/Kandara area, respectively. Target Population The target population of this study was farmers from Ngewa ward in Githunguri Sub-County, Githunguri Constituency, Kiambu County. Farmers from Ngewa Ward belonged to a common group as most of them were small-scale farmers. They also shared almost the same farming needs as well as the climate because they had common geographical area. Sample Size A sample size of 122 respondents was used, borrowed from the argument advanced by Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), since the estimated total population of farmers in Ngewa ward was about 1,200 (Kiambu County, 2018). The following calculation determined the sample size through a formula borrowed from Mugenda and Mugenda (2003). nf = n 1+ (n/N) Where: nf= the anticipated sample size (when the population is less than 10,000) n= the anticipated sample size (when the population is more than 10,000) 136 N= the approximation of the population size = 1200 The sample size hence was: Daystar University Repository Library Archives Copy 45 nf = 136 = 136 = 136 = 122.1 1+ (136/1200) 1+0.113 1.113 Therefore, the participants were 122.1 rounded off to the nearest tens, which was 122. Sampling Techniques The study applied simple random sampling technique with systematic sampling angle to obtain the respondents for the questionnaire. According to Alvi (2016), in this type of sampling, elements of the population had an equivalent chance of being selected in the sample. Alreck and Settle (2007) highlighted the necessity to sample 10% or more of the population to attain adequate assurance in generalization of any research. In line with this, the researcher considered 10% of the farmers’ populations in Ngewa ward which resulted in 122 participants. The researchers numbered all the participants and then selected the number to sample randomly. Data Collection Instruments The study used questionnaires and focus group as the data collection instruments. The survey through questionnaires was used to study the effectiveness of the tools used to communicate to the farmers about the technologies, measure the awareness farmers had on the research organisations and the adoption level of the new technology by